Method for the Assessment of Effects of a Range of Wavelengths and Intensities of Red/near-infrared Light Therapy on Oxidative Stress <em>In Vitro</em>

Red/near-infrared light therapy (R/NIR-LT), delivered by laser or light emitting diode (LED), improves functional and morphological outcomes in a range of ...

The University of Western Australia

The rapid and massive death of cultured donor myoblasts after injection in vivo is a major problem for clinical myoblast transfer therapy (MTT). This study shows blood-borne factors are responsible and that ablating the host natural killer (NK) cell response greatly enhances the survival of such donor myoblasts.

A role for natural killer cells in the rapid death of cultured donor myoblasts after transplantation.

There is a massive and rapid death of donor myoblasts (<20% surviving) within hours after intramuscular injection in myoblast transfer therapy (MTT), due to host immune cells, especially natural killer (NK) cells. To investigate the role of host immune cells in the dramatic death of donor myoblasts, MTT experiments were performed in irradiated host mice. Cultured normal C57BL/10ScSn male donor myoblasts were injected into muscles of female C57BL/10ScSn-Dmdmdx host mice after one of three treatments: whole body irradiation (WBI) to eliminate all circulating leukocytes, WBI and bone marrow reconstitution (BMR), or local irradiation (or protection) of one limb. Similar experiments were performed in host mice after antibody depletion of NK cells. Numbers of male donor myoblasts were quantified using a Y-chromosome-specific (male) probe following total DNA extraction of injected muscles. WBI prior to MTT resulted in dramatically enhanced survival (approximately 80%) of donor myoblasts at 1 hour after MTT, supporting a central role for host inflammatory cells in the initial death of donor myoblasts seen in untreated host mice. BMR restored the massive and rapid loss (approximately 25% surviving) of donor myoblasts at 1 hour after MTT. Local pre-irradiation also resulted in increased donor myoblast numbers (approximately 35-40%) compared with untreated controls (approximately 10%) at 3 weeks after MTT. Preirradiation of host muscle with 10 Gy did not significantly stimulate proliferation of the injected donor myoblasts. Serum protein levels of TNFalpha, IL-1beta, IL-6 and IL-12 fluctuated following irradiation treatments. These combined results strongly reinforce a major role for host immune cells in the rapid death of injected cultured donor myoblasts.

Irradiation of dystrophic host tissue prior to myoblast transfer therapy enhances initial (but not long-term) survival of donor myoblasts.

The transplantation of muscle precursor cells (myoblasts) is a potential therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. A commonly used method to detect cell survival is quantitation of the Y chromosome following transplantation of male donor cells into female hosts. This article presents a direct comparison between real-time quantitative PCR (Q-PCR) and the DNA hybridization (slot-blot) technique for quantitation of Y chromosome DNA. Q-PCR has a significantly greater linear quantitation range and is up to 40-fold more sensitive at low concentrations of male DNA, detecting as little as 1 ng of male DNA in each female tibialis anterior (TA) muscle. At high male DNA concentrations, accurate quantitation by Q-PCR is 2.5 times higher than the maximum possible with slot-blot. In conclusion, Q-PCR has a higher dynamic range and is more efficient than slot-blot analysis for the detection of donor cell engraftment in a transsexual transplantation model.

A comparison between real-time quantitative PCR and DNA hybridization for quantitation of male DNA following myoblast transplantation.

Transplantation therapies aimed at repairing neurodegenerative and neuropathological conditions of the central nervous system (CNS) have utilised and tested a variety of cell candidates, each with its own unique set of advantages and disadvantages. The use and popularity of each cell type is guided by a number of factors including the nature of the experimental model, neuroprotection capacity, the ability to promote plasticity and guided axonal growth, and the cells' myelination capability. The promise of stem cells, with their reported ability to give rise to neuronal lineages to replace lost endogenous cells and myelin, integrate into host tissue, restore functional connectivity and provide trophic support to enhance and direct intrinsic regenerative ability, has been seen as a most encouraging step forward. The advent of the induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC), which represents the ability to "re-program" somatic cells into a pluripotent state, hails the arrival of a new cell transplantation candidate for potential clinical application in therapies designed to promote repair and/or regeneration of the CNS. Since the initial development of iPSC technology, these cells have been extensively characterised in vitro and in a number of pathological conditions, and were originally reported to be equivalent to embryonic stem cells (ESCs). This review highlights emerging evidence that suggests iPSCs are not necessarily indistinguishable from ESCs, and may occupy a different "state" of pluripotency with differences in gene expression, methylation patterns and genomic aberrations which may reflect incomplete reprogramming and may therefore impact on the regenerative potential of these donor cells in therapies. It also highlights the limitations of current technologies used to generate these cells. Moreover we provide a systematic review of the state of play with regard to the use of iPSCs in the treatment of neurodegenerative and neuropathological conditions. The importance of balancing the promise of this transplantation candidate in the light of these emerging properties is crucial as the potential application in the clinical setting approaches.The first of three sections in this review, discusses (A) the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) and how stem cell therapies can positively alter the pathology in experimental SCI. Part B summarises (i) the available technologies to deliver transgenes to generate iPSCs and (ii) recent data comparing iPSCs to ESCs in terms of characteristics and molecular composition. Lastly, in (C) we evaluate iPSC-based therapies as a candidate to treat SCI on the basis of their neurite induction capability compared to embryonic stem cells, and provide a summary of available in vivo data of iPSCs used in SCI and other disease models.

Systematic Review of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Technology as a Potential Clinical Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury.

Th&eacute;rapies de transplantation visant &agrave; r&eacute;parer neurod&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;ratives et conditions neuropathologiques de la maladie du syst&egrave;me nerveux central (CNS) ont utilis&eacute; et test&eacute; une vari&eacute;t&eacute; des candidats de la cellule, chacun avec son propre ensemble d&#39;avantages et d&#39;inconv&eacute;nients. L&#39;utilisation et la popularit&eacute; de chaque type de cellule est guid&eacute; par un certain nombre de facteurs, y compris la nature du mod&egrave;le exp&eacute;rimental, neuroprotection capacit&eacute;, la capacit&eacute; &agrave; promouvoir la plasticit&eacute; et la croissance axonale guid&eacute;e et capacit&eacute; de my&eacute;linisation de LiPo. La promesse des cellules souches, avec leur capacit&eacute; signal&eacute;e pour donner naissance &agrave; des lign&eacute;es neuronales pour remplacer des cellules endog&egrave;nes perdues et la my&eacute;line, int&eacute;grer dans les tissus de l&#39;h&ocirc;te, restaurer la connectivit&eacute; fonctionnelle et fournir soutien trophique pour renforcer et diriger la capacit&eacute; r&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;rative intrins&egrave;que, a &eacute;t&eacute; consid&eacute;r&eacute;e comme un pas en avant tr&egrave;s encourageant. L&#39;av&egrave;nement de la cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPSC), qui repr&eacute;sente la capacit&eacute; de cellules somatiques &laquo; reprogrammer &raquo; dans un &eacute;tat de pluripotentes, salue l&#39;arriv&eacute;e d&#39;un nouveau candidat de transplantation de cellules pour une application clinique potentielle en th&eacute;rapies visant &agrave; promouvoir la r&eacute;paration et/ou de r&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;ration du SNC. Depuis le d&eacute;veloppement initial de la technologie de l&#39;iPSC, ces cellules ont &eacute;t&eacute; largement caract&eacute;ris&eacute;s in vitro et dans un certain nombre d&#39;&eacute;tats pathologiques et ont &eacute;t&eacute; signal&eacute;s initialement &eacute;quivalent de cellules souches embryonnaires (CSE). Cet examen met en &eacute;vidence la nouvelle preuve qui sugg&egrave;re CISP n&#39;est pas n&eacute;cessairement identiques &agrave; ces et peut occuper un &laquo; &Eacute;tat &raquo; diff&eacute;rentes de pluripotence avec des diff&eacute;rences dans l&#39;expression des g&egrave;nes, m&eacute;thylation et des aberrations g&eacute;nomiques qui peuvent refl&eacute;ter une reprogrammation incompl&egrave;te et peuvent donc avoir une incidence sur le potentiel de r&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;ration de ces cellules de donneur dans les th&eacute;rapies. Il met &eacute;galement en &eacute;vidence les limites des technologies actuelles utilis&eacute;es pour g&eacute;n&eacute;rer ces cellules. En outre, nous fournissons un examen syst&eacute;matique de l&#39;&eacute;tat des lieux en ce qui concerne l&#39;utilisation de la CISP dans le traitement de neurodegenerative et conditions neuropathologiques. L&#39;importance de l&#39;&eacute;quilibre entre la promesse de ce candidat de transplantation au vu de ces propri&eacute;t&eacute;s &eacute;mergentes est crucial que le potentiel d&#39;application dans les atterrages du contexte clinique.Le premier des trois sections dans cette revue, traite (A) la physiopathologie des l&eacute;sions de la moelle &eacute;pini&egrave;re (SCI) et comment les cellules souches peuvent modifier positivement la pathologie exp&eacute;rimentale Sci. partie b (i) r&eacute;sume les technologies disponibles pour fournir des transg&egrave;nes pour g&eacute;n&eacute;rer le CISP et (ii) ces derni&egrave;res donn&eacute;es comparant CISP &agrave; ces caract&eacute;ristiques et composition mol&eacute;culaire. Enfin, en (C) nous &eacute;valuons les th&eacute;rapies &agrave; base d&#39;iPSC destin&eacute;e &agrave; traiter la SCI sur la base de leur capacit&eacute; d&#39;induction de neurites par rapport aux cellules souches embryonnaires et fournir un r&eacute;sum&eacute; des donn&eacute;es in vivo de la CISP utilis&eacute;e en SCI et autres mod&egrave;les de la maladie.

Revue syst&eacute;matique de la technologie cellulaire des souches pluripotentes induites comme une th&eacute;rapie clinique potentielle de la moelle &eacute;pini&egrave;re.

Terapie trapianto volto a riparare neurodegenerative e neuropatologiche condizioni del sistema nervoso centrale (SNC) hanno utilizzato e testato una variet&agrave; di candidati di cellule, ciascuna con un proprio set unico di vantaggi e svantaggi. L&#39;uso e la popolarit&agrave; di ogni tipo di cellula &egrave; guidata da un certo numero di fattori, tra cui la natura del modello sperimentale, neuroprotezione capacit&agrave;, la capacit&agrave; di promuovere la plasticit&agrave; e guidata crescita assonale e la capacit&agrave; di mielinizzazione delle cellule. La promessa delle cellule staminali, con la loro capacit&agrave; segnalati per dar luogo a lignaggi neuronale per sostituire cellule endogene perse e mielina, integrare nel tessuto ospite, ripristinare la connettivit&agrave; funzionale e fornire supporto trofico per potenziare e dirigere la intrinseca capacit&agrave; rigenerativa, &egrave; stato visto come un passo in avanti pi&ugrave; incoraggiante. L&#39;avvento delle cellule staminali pluripotenti indotte (iPSC), che rappresenta la capacit&agrave; di &quot;riprogrammare&quot; cellule somatiche in uno stato di pluripotenti, saluta l&#39;arrivo di un nuovo candidato di trapianto delle cellule per potenziali applicazioni cliniche in terapie progettato per promuovere la riparazione e/o rigenerazione del sistema nervoso centrale. Poich&eacute; lo sviluppo iniziale della tecnologia iPSC, queste cellule sono state ampiamente caratterizzate in vitro e in un certo numero di condizioni patologiche e originalmente sono state segnalate per essere equivalente a cellule staminali embrionali (CES). Questa recensione mette in evidenza le prove emergenti che suggeriscono iPSCs non sono necessariamente indistinguibile dalla CES e pu&ograve; occupare un diverso &quot;stato&quot; della pluripotenza con differenze nell&#39;espressione genica, schemi di metilazione e aberrazioni genomiche che possono riflettere la riprogrammazione incompleto e pertanto possono influenzare il potenziale rigenerativo di queste cellule del donatore in terapie. Si evidenzia anche i limiti delle attuali tecnologie utilizzate per generare queste cellule. Inoltre forniamo una revisione sistematica dello stato di gioco per quanto riguarda l&#39;uso delle iPSCs nel trattamento di condizioni neuropatologiche e neurodegenerative. L&#39;importanza di bilanciare la promessa di questo candidato di trapianto alla luce di queste propriet&agrave; emergenti &egrave; cruciale come l&#39;applicazione potenziale approcci regolazione clinica.La prima delle tre sezioni in questa recensione, discute la fisiopatologia delle lesioni del midollo spinale (SCI) e come le terapie con cellule staminali possono modificare positivamente la patologia sperimentale SIC. parte b (i) riassume le tecnologie disponibili per fornire transgeni per generare iPSCs e (ii) recenti dati confrontando iPSCs al CES in termini di caratteristiche e composizione molecolare. Infine, in (C) noi valutare terapie a base di iPSC come candidato per il trattamento di SCI sulla base della loro capacit&agrave; di induzione dei neuriti rispetto alle cellule staminali embrionali e fornire una sintesi dei dati disponibili in vivo delle iPSCs utilizzata in altri modelli di malattia e SCI.

Revisione sistematica della tecnologia delle cellule staminali pluripotenti indotte come una potenziale terapia clinica per lesioni del midollo spinale.

This study aimed to determine the potential of purified (Stro-1(+)) human mesenchymal precursor cells (hMPCs) to repair the injured spinal cord (SC) after transplantation into T-cell-deficient athymic RNU nude rats following acute moderate contusive spinal cord injury (SCI). hMPCs were isolated from the bone marrow (BM) stroma of SCI patients and transplanted as a suspension graft in medium [with or without immunosuppression using cyclosporin A (CsA)]. Extensive anatomical analysis shows statistically significant improvement in functional recovery, tissue sparing, and cyst reduction. We provide quantitative assessment of supraspinal projections in combination with functional outcomes. hMPC-transplanted animals consistently achieved mean BBB scores of 15 at 8 weeks post injury. Quantitative histological staining revealed that graft-recipient animals possessed more intact spinal tissue and reduced cyst formation than controls. Fluorogold (FG) retrograde tracing revealed sparing/regeneration of supraspinal and local propriospinal axonal pathways, but no statistical differences were observed compared to controls. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed increased serotonergic (5-HT) and sensory (CGRP) axonal growth within and surrounding transplanted donor hMPCs 2 weeks posttransplantation, but no evidence of hMPC transdifferentiation was seen. Although hMPCs initially survive at 2 weeks posttransplantation, their numbers were dramatically reduced and no cells were detected at 8 weeks posttransplantation using retroviral/lentiviral GFP labeling and a human nuclear antigen (HNA) antibody. Additional immunosuppression with CsA did not improve hMPC survival or their ability to promote tissue sparing or functional recovery. We propose Stro-1(+)-selected hMPCs provide (i) a reproducible source for stem cell transplantation for SC therapy and (ii) a positive host microenvironment resulting in the promotion of tissue sparing/repair that subsequently improves behavioral outcomes after SCI. Our results provide a new candidate for consideration as a stem cell therapy for the repair of traumatic CNS injury.

Human mesenchymal precursor cells (Stro-1⁺) from spinal cord injury patients improve functional recovery and tissue sparing in an acute spinal cord injury rat model.

The self-assembly of nanoparticles is an efficient and precise method to fabricate nanoscale devices. By manipulating iron oxide nanoparticles in suspension with an external field to form magnetically directed linear assemblies, we demonstrate the feasibility of using this structure to template the synthesis of PEDOT:PSS conducting polymer nanowires in suspension. Furthermore these conducting wires can be assembled on interdigitated electrodes to form an array of conducting nanowires.

Magnetic field directed fabrication of conducting polymer nanowires.

This study assessed the potential of highly purified (Stro-1(+)) human mesenchymal precursor cells (hMPCs) in combination with the anti-scarring protein decorin to repair the injured spinal cord (SC). Donor hMPCs isolated from spinal cord injury (SCI) patients were transplanted into athymic rats as a suspension graft, alone or after previous treatment with, core (decorin(core)) and proteoglycan (decorin(pro)) isoforms of purified human recombinant decorin. Decorin was delivered via mini-osmotic pumps for 14 days following sub-acute (7 day) or chronic (1 month) SCI. hMPCs were delivered to the spinal cord at 3 weeks or 6 weeks after the initial injury at T9 level. Behavioral and anatomical analysis in this study showed statistically significant improvement in functional recovery, tissue sparing and cyst volume reduction following hMPC therapy. The combination of decorin infusion followed by hMPC therapy did not improve these measured outcomes over the use of cell therapy alone, in either sub-acute or chronic SCI regimes. However, decorin infusion did improve tissue sparing, reduce spinal tissue cavitation and increase transplanted cell survivability as compared to controls. Immunohistochemical analysis of spinal cord sections revealed differences in glial, neuronal and extracellular matrix molecule expression within each experimental group. hMPC transplanted spinal cords showed the increased presence of serotonergic (5-HT) and sensory (CGRP) axonal growth within and surrounding transplanted hMPCs for up to 2 months; however, no evidence of hMPC transdifferentiation into neuronal or glial phenotypes. The number of hMPCs was dramatically reduced overall, and no transplanted cells were detected at 8 weeks post-injection using lentiviral GFP labeling and human nuclear antigen antibody labeling. The presence of recombinant decorin in the cell transplantation regimes delayed in part the loss of donor cells, with small numbers remaining at 2 months after transplantation. In vitro co-culture experiments with embryonic dorsal root ganglion explants revealed the growth promoting properties of hMPCs. Decorin did not increase axonal outgrowth from that achieved by hMPCs. We provide evidence for the first time that (Stro-1(+)) hMPCs provide: i) an advantageous source of allografts for stem cell transplantation for sub-acute and chronic spinal cord therapy, and (ii) a positive host microenvironment that promotes tissue sparing/repair that subsequently improves behavioral outcomes after SCI. This was not measurably improved by recombinant decorin treatment, but does provide important information for the future development and potential use of decorin in contusive SCI therapy.

A comparison of the behavioral and anatomical outcomes in sub-acute and chronic spinal cord injury models following treatment with human mesenchymal precursor cell transplantation and recombinant decorin.

We used morphological, immunohistochemical and functional assessments to determine the impact of genetically-modified peripheral nerve (PN) grafts on axonal regeneration after injury. Grafts were assembled from acellular nerve sheaths repopulated ex vivo with Schwann cells (SCs) modified to express brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a secretable form of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), or neurotrophin-3 (NT3). Grafts were used to repair unilateral 1 cm defects in rat peroneal nerves and 10 weeks later outcomes were compared to normal nerves and various controls: autografts, acellular grafts and grafts with unmodified SCs. The number of regenerated βIII-Tubulin positive axons was similar in all grafts with the exception of CNTF, which contained the fewest immunostained axons. There were significantly lower fiber counts in acellular, untransduced SC and NT3 groups using a PanNF antibody, suggesting a paucity of large caliber axons. In addition, NT3 grafts contained the greatest number of sensory fibres, identified with either IB4 or CGRP markers. Examination of semi- and ultra-thin sections revealed heterogeneous graft morphologies, particularly in BDNF and NT3 grafts in which the fascicular organization was pronounced. Unmyelinated axons were loosely organized in numerous Remak bundles in NT3 grafts, while the BDNF graft group displayed the lowest ratio of umyelinated to myelinated axons. Gait analysis revealed that stance width was increased in rats with CNTF and NT3 grafts, and step length involving the injured left hindlimb was significantly greater in NT3 grafted rats, suggesting enhanced sensory sensitivity in these animals. In summary, the selective expression of BDNF, CNTF or NT3 by genetically modified SCs had differential effects on PN graft morphology, the number and type of regenerating axons, myelination, and locomotor function.

Immunohistochemical, ultrastructural and functional analysis of axonal regeneration through peripheral nerve grafts containing Schwann cells expressing BDNF, CNTF or NT3.

The "stem cell" has become arguably one of the most important biological tools in the arsenal of translational research directed at regeneration and repair. It remains to be seen whether every tissue has its own stem cell niche, although relatively recently a large amount of research has focused on isolating and characterizing tissue-specific stem cell populations, as well as those that are able to be directed to transdifferentiate into a variety of different lineages. Traditionally, stem cells are isolated from the viable tissue of embryonic, fetal, or adult living hosts; from "fresh" donated tissues that have been surgically or otherwise removed (biopsies), or obtained directly from tissues within minutes to several hours post mortem (PM). These human progenitor/stem cell sources remain potentially highly controversial, since they are accompanied by various still-unresolved ethical, social, moral and legal challenges. Due to the limited number of "live" donors, the small amount of material obtained from biopsies and difficulties during purification processes, harvesting from cadaveric material presents itself as an alternative strategy that could provide a hitherto untapped source of stem cells. However, PM stem cells are not without their own unique set of limitations including difficulty of obtaining samples, limited supply of material, variations in delay between death and sample collection, possible lack of medication history and suboptimal retrospective assignment of diagnostic and demographic data. This article is part of a Directed Issue entitled: Regenerative Medicine: The challenge of translation.

Long live the stem cell: the use of stem cells isolated from post mortem tissues for translational strategies.

A variety of neurotrophic factors have been used in attempts to improve morphological and behavioural outcomes after experimental spinal cord injury (SCI). Here we review many of these factors, their cellular targets, and their therapeutic impact on spinal cord repair in different, primarily rodent, models of SCI. A majority of studies report favourable outcomes but results are by no means consistent, thus a major aim of this review is to consider how best to apply neurotrophic factors after SCI to optimize their therapeutic potential. In addition to which factors are chosen, many variables need be considered when delivering trophic support, including where and when to apply a given factor or factors, how such factors are administered, at what dose, and for how long. Overall, the majority of studies have applied neurotrophic support in or close to the spinal cord lesion site, in the acute or sub-acute phase (0-14 days post-injury). Far fewer chronic SCI studies have been undertaken. In addition, comparatively fewer studies have administered neurotrophic factors directly to the cell bodies of injured neurons; yet in other instructive rodent models of CNS injury, for example optic nerve crush or transection, therapies are targeted directly at the injured neurons themselves, the retinal ganglion cells. The mode of delivery of neurotrophic factors is also an important variable, whether delivered by acute injection of recombinant proteins, sub-acute or chronic delivery using osmotic minipumps, cell-mediated delivery, delivery using polymer release vehicles or supporting bridges of some sort, or the use of gene therapy to modify neurons, glial cells or precursor/stem cells. Neurotrophic factors are often used in combination with cell or tissue grafts and/or other pharmacotherapeutic agents. Finally, the dose and time-course of delivery of trophic support should ideally be tailored to suit specific biological requirements, whether they relate to neuronal survival, axonal sparing/sprouting, or the long-distance regeneration of axons ending in a different mode of growth associated with terminal arborization and renewed synaptogenesis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Spinal cord injury.

Neurotrophic factors for spinal cord repair: Which, where, how and when to apply, and for what period of time?

The use of programmed electrical signals to influence biological events has been a widely accepted clinical methodology for neurostimulation. An optimal biocompatible platform for neural activation efficiently transfers electrical signals across the electrode-cell interface and also incorporates large-area neural guidance conduits. Inherently conducting polymers (ICPs) have emerged as frontrunners as soft biocompatible alternatives to traditionally used metal electrodes, which are highly invasive and elicit tissue damage over long-term implantation. However, fabrication techniques for the ICPs suffer a major bottleneck, which limits their usability and medical translation. Herein, we report that these limitations can be overcome using colloidal chemistry to fabricate multimodal conducting polymer nanoparticles. Furthermore, we demonstrate that these polymer nanoparticles can be precisely assembled into large-area linear conduits using surface chemistry. Finally, we validate that this platform can act as guidance conduits for neurostimulation, whereby the presence of electrical current induces remarkable dendritic axonal sprouting of cells.

Stuart I. Hodgetts

Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences,
School of Anatomy,
Physiology and Human Biology,
Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology

The University of Western Australia

Method for the Assessment of Effects of a Range of Wavelengths and Intensities of Red/near-infrared Light Therapy on Oxidative Stress In Vitro

Stuart I. Hodgetts

.css-o250i3{font-size:18px;font-family:Open Sans,sans-serif;line-height:21.6px;}Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences,School of Anatomy,Physiology and Human Biology,Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology

The University of Western Australia

Method for the Assessment of Effects of a Range of Wavelengths and Intensities of Red/near-infrared Light Therapy on Oxidative Stress In Vitro

Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences,
School of Anatomy,
Physiology and Human Biology,
Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology