The laboratory of GSCh is supported in part by grant IN201222 from Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigaci&#243;n e Innovaci&#243;n Tecnol&#243;gica (PAPIIT), Direcci&#243;n General de Asuntos del Personal Acad&#233;mico -UNAM.

This procedure is schematized in Supplementary Figure 1. The reagents and equipment used for the study are listed in the Table of Materials.
1. Detection of mRL and dRL in culture supernatants of P. aeruginosa using TLC
<ol>
	<li>Start with the centrifuged broth of the P. aeruginosa strain of interest, cultivated in liquid medium for 24 h (to reach the stationary phase of growth where RL is...

Comparative Analysis of Rhamnolipid Production in &lt;i&gt;Pseudomonas aeruginosa&lt;/i&gt; Strains

<ol>
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W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa:+New+insights+into+pathogenesis+and+host+defenses.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa: New insights into pathogenesis and host defenses.</a> Pathogens and Disease. 67 (3), 159-173 (2013).</li><li>Williams, P., C&#225;mara, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quorum+sensing+and+environmental+adaptation+in+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa:+a+tale+of+regulatory+networks+and+multifunctional+signal+molecules.">Quorum sensing and environmental adaptation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a tale of regulatory networks and multifunctional signal molecules.</a> Current Opinion in Microbiology. 12 (2), 182-191 (2009).</li><li>Sober&#243;n-Ch&#225;vez, G., Gonz&#225;lez-Valdez, A., Soto-Aceves, M. P., Cocotl-Ya&#241;ez, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rhamnolipids+produced+by+Pseudomonas:+From+molecular+genetics+to+the+market.">Rhamnolipids produced by Pseudomonas: From molecular genetics to the market.</a> Microbial Biotechnology (MBT). 14 (1), 136-146 (2021).</li><li>Freschi, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+pan-genome+provides+new+insights+on+its+population+structure,+horizontal+gene+transfer,+and+pathogenicity.">The Pseudomonas aeruginosa pan-genome provides new insights on its population structure, horizontal gene transfer, and pathogenicity.</a> Genome Biology and Evolution. 11 (1), 109-120 (2019).</li><li>Quiroz-Morales, S. E., Garc&#237;a-Reyes, S., Ponce-Soto, G. 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M., L&#233;pine, F., D&#233;ziel, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rhamnolipids:+Diversity+of+structures,+microbial+origins,+and+roles.">Rhamnolipids: Diversity of structures, microbial origins, and roles.</a> Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 86 (5), 1323-1336 (2010).</li><li>Toribio, J., Escalante, A. E., Sober&#243;n-Ch&#225;vez, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+rhamnolipids+in+bacteria+other+than+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa.">Production of rhamnolipids in bacteria other than Pseudomonas aeruginosa.</a> European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 112, 1082-1087 (2010).</li><li>Filbig, M., et al., Sober&#243;n-Ch&#225;vez, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolic+and+process+engineering+on+the+edge-Rhamnolipids+are+a+true+challenge:+A+review.">Metabolic and process engineering on the edge-Rhamnolipids are a true challenge: A review.</a> Biosurfactants. 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V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+ATCC+9027+is+a+non-virulent+strain+suitable+for+mono-rhamnolipids+production.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027 is a non-virulent strain suitable for mono-rhamnolipids production.</a> Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 100 (23), 9995-10004 (2016).</li><li>Guti&#233;rrez-G&#243;mez, U., Soto-Aceves, M. P., Serv&#237;n-Gonz&#225;lez, L., Sober&#243;n-Ch&#225;vez, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overproduction+of+rhamnolipids+in+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+PA14+by+redirection+of+the+carbon+flux+from+polyhydroxyalcanoate+synthesis+and+overexpression+of+the+rhlAB-R+operon.">Overproduction of rhamnolipids in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14 by redirection of the carbon flux from polyhydroxyalcanoate synthesis and overexpression of the rhlAB-R operon.</a> Biotechnology Letters. 40 (11), 1561-1566 (2018).</li><li>Zibek, S., Sober&#243;n-Ch&#225;vez, G., Hausmann, R., Henkel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overview+on+glycosylated+lipids+produced+by+bacteria+and+fungi:+Rhamno-,+Sophoro-,+Mannosylerythritol+and+Cellobiose+Lipids.">Overview on glycosylated lipids produced by bacteria and fungi: Rhamno-, Sophoro-, Mannosylerythritol and Cellobiose Lipids.</a> Biosurfactants for a Biobased. 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S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microbial+biosurfactant+research:+time+to+improve+the+rigour+in+the+reporting+of+synthesis,+functional+characterization+and+process+development.">Microbial biosurfactant research: time to improve the rigour in the reporting of synthesis, functional characterization and process development.</a> Microbial Biotechnology. 14 (1), 147-170 (2021).</li><li>Matsuyama, T., Sogawa, M., Yano, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+colony+thin+layer+chromatography+and+rapid+characterization+of+Serratia+marscescens+wetting+agents.">Direct colony thin layer chromatography and rapid characterization of Serratia marscescens wetting agents.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 53 (5), 1186-1188 (1987).</li><li>Chandrasekaran, E. V., Bemiller, J. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Constituent+analyses+of+glycosaminoglycans.">Constituent analyses of glycosaminoglycans.</a> Methods on Carbohydrate Chemistry. 8, 89-96 (1980).</li><li>Behrens, B., Engelen, J., Tiso, T., Blank, L. M., Hayen, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+rhamnolipids+by+liquid+chromatography/mass+spectrometry+after+solid-phase+extraction.">Characterization of rhamnolipids by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry after solid-phase extraction.</a> Analytic and Bioanalytic Chemistry. 408 (10), 2505-2514 (2016).</li><li>Rahim, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cloning+and+functional+characterization+of+the+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+rhlC+gene+that+encodes+rhamnosyltransferase+2,+an+enzyme+responsible+for+di-rhamnolipid+biosynthesis.">Cloning and functional characterization of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhlC gene that encodes rhamnosyltransferase 2, an enzyme responsible for di-rhamnolipid biosynthesis.</a> Molecular Microbiology. 40 (3), 708-718 (2001).</li><li>Irorere, V. U., Tripathi, L., Marchant, R., McClean, S., Banat, I. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microbial+rhamnolipid+production:+A+critical+re-evaluation+of+published+data+and+suggested+future+publication+criteria.">Microbial rhamnolipid production: A critical re-evaluation of published data and suggested future publication criteria.</a> Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 101 (10), 3941-3951 (2017).</li><li>Holloway, B. 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The most accurate method for detecting and quantifying RL is HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry (MS)7,8,27; however, it requires specialized and expensive equipment that may not be accessible to many researchers. The methods described here can be routinely performed with basic laboratory materials and equipment to detect and estimate RL concentrations, but they have some limitations, particularly their inaccuracy in determining...

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an environmental bacterium and an opportunistic pathogen of great concern due to its production of virulence-associated traits and its high antibiotic resistance1,2. A characteristic secondary metabolite produced by this bacterium is the biosurfactant RL, which is produced in a coordinated manner with several virulence-associated traits such as the phenazine pyocyanin, an antibiotic with redox activity, and the protease elastase3. The tensio-active and emulsification properties of RL have been exploited in different industrial applications and are currently commercialized4.
Most P. aeruginosa strains, belonging to phylogroups 1 and 2, produce two types of RL: mRL, which consists of one rhamnose moiety linked to a fatty acid dimer mainly of 10 carbons, and dRL, which contains an additional rhamnose moiety linked to the first rhamnose4 (see Figure 1). However, it has been reported that two minor P. aeruginosa phylogroups (groups 3 and 5) only produce mRL5,6. The two types of RL contain a mixture of fatty acid dimers, which, as mentioned, are mainly C10-C10, but smaller proportions of molecules containing C12-C10, C12-C12, and C10-C12:1 dimers are also produced. The characterization of the RL congeners produced by different strains using HPLC MS/MS has been reported7,8. The methods described in this work can only differentiate between mRL and dRL but cannot be used for the characterization of the RL congeners.
P. aeruginosa and some Burkholderia species are natural producers of RL9, but the former bacterium is the most efficient producer. However, commercially used RL is currently produced in Pseudomonas putida KT2440 derivatives expressing P. aeruginosa genes to avoid the use of this opportunistic pathogen10,11. The detection and quantification of RL produced by P. aeruginosa are of great importance for studying the molecular mechanisms involved in the expression of virulence-related traits12, in the characterization of strains belonging to clades 3 or 513, and for constructing P. aeruginosa derivatives that overproduce these biosurfactants while having reduced virulence14. The production of biosurfactants by different microorganisms has been detected based on some general characteristics of these compounds, such as the collapse drop method or emulsification index15, but these methods are neither accurate nor specific16.
Here, we describe the protocol to detect mRL and dRL using the liquid extraction of total RL from the culture supernatants of different P. aeruginosa-type strains and the separation of both types of RL using TLC. In this method, the RL extracted from the culture supernatant is separated by their differential solubility in the solvents used for TLC, causing differential migration on the silica gel plate. Thus, mRL have a more rapid migration than dRL, and they can be detected as separate spots when the plates are dried and stained with &#945;-naphthol.
The method described here for detecting mRL and dRL by TLC is based on a previously published article17, which is easy to perform and does not require expensive equipment. This method has been useful for detecting RL in various P. aeruginosa isolates13 using appropriate controls, such as a P. aeruginosa-derived mutant unable to produce RL. However, it is not the preferred method for characterizing novel biosurfactants produced by bacteria other than Pseudomonas aeruginosa due to its lack of specificity.
Additionally, a method for quantifying the rhamnose equivalents of total RL extracted from a P. aeruginosa culture supernatant is presented. This method quantifies these biosurfactants based on the reaction of orcinol with reductive sugars, resulting in a product that can be measured spectrophotometrically at 421 nm, as previously described18. Since the reaction with orcinol is not specific to rhamnose, it is important to perform this method with RL extracted from the culture supernatant that does not contain significant amounts of other sugar-containing molecules, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS). An acidified chloroform/methanol mixture is used here for liquid extraction of RL18, but ethyl acetate can also be used, and solid-phase extraction (SPE) yields very good results19. The orcinol method described here does not require sophisticated equipment and can provide reliable results if performed with special care in preparing the analyzed samples, as discussed. To ensure proper sample preparation, it is important to include a Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhlA mutant unable to produce RL20 and to perform three biological and three technical replicates for each determination.
There has been significant controversy in the literature16,21regarding RL determination by the orcinol method, with some studies suggesting that RL production is overestimated and that the assay lacks specificity for rhamnose, potentially detecting other sugars. However, we demonstrate here that the methods described can be accurate and specific under the appropriate conditions. Furthermore, for comparison with the procedures outlined in this article, we utilize UPLC-MS/MS detection of a dRL standard and demonstrate that similar results are obtained with the orcinol method. The detailed protocol for quantifying RL using this method is included in Supplementary File 1.
These protocols are exemplified using the type strains PAO1 (phylogroup 1), PA14 (phylogroup 2), and PA7 (phylogroup 3). These strains were chosen because they are well-characterized and produce different RL profiles.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1-NAPHTHOL</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>70442</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACETIC ACID</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>9508-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CENTRIFUGE</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For centrifuging tubes 1.5 mL and&#160; 50 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CHLOROFORM</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>9180-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DRYING OVEN</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ETHER</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>9244-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GLASS PIPETTE</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>CLS706510</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HYDROCHLORIC ACID</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>5622-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-RHAMNOSE MONOHYDRATE</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>R-3875</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>METHANOL</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>9049-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ORCINOL MONOHYDRATE</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>O1875</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PPGAS Broth</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Tris HCL (0.12M), Potassium Chloride ( 0.02M) Ammonium Chloride (0.02M),&#160; Peptone (1%), pH 7.4&#160;&#160; Autoclaved. Add&#160; Glucose (5%) and Magnesium Sulfate (0.0016M)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QUARTZ CELL (CUVETTE)</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>Z276669</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RECTANGULAR TLC DEVELOPING TANK</td>
			<td>FISHER SCIENTIFIC</td>
			<td>K4161801020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RHAMNOLIPIDS&#160;</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>R-90</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SPECTROPHOTOMETER</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>VIS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SPRAYER</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>Z529710-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SULFURIC ACID</td>
			<td>J.T. BAKER</td>
			<td>9681-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TES TUBES 5mL</td>
			<td>CORNING</td>
			<td>352002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TLC SILICA GEL 60 F254</td>
			<td>MERCK</td>
			<td>1.05554.0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>WATER BATH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>&#62; 80 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

detection and quantification of mono-rhamnolipids and di-rhamnolipids produced by pseudomonas aeruginosa

The environmental bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen with high antibiotic resistance that represents a health hazard. This bacterium produces high levels of biosurfactants known as rhamnolipids (RL), which are molecules with significant biotechnological value but are also associated with virulence traits. In this respect, the detection and quantification of RL may be useful for both biotechnology applications and biomedical research projects. In this article, we demonstrate step-by-step the technique to detect the production of the two forms of RL produced by P. aeruginosa using thin-layer chromatography (TLC): mono-rhamnolipids (mRL), molecules constituted by a dimer of fatty acids (mainly C10-C10) linked to one rhamnose moiety, and di-rhamnolipids (dRL), molecules constituted by a similar fatty acid dimer linked to two rhamnose moieties. Additionally, we present a method to measure the total amount of RL based on the acid hydrolysis of these biosurfactants extracted from a P. aeruginosa culture supernatant and the subsequent detection of the concentration of rhamnose that reacts with orcinol. The combination of both techniques can be used to estimate the approximate concentration of mRL and dRL produced by a specific strain, as exemplified here with the type strains PAO1 (phylogroup 1), PA14 (phylogroup 2), and PA7 (phylogroup 3).

Author Spotlight: Understanding Rhamnolipid Regulation in &lt;i&gt;Pseudomonas aeruginosa&lt;/i&gt;

Detection and Quantification of Mono-Rhamnolipids and Di-Rhamnolipids Produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The aim of our research is to understand the regulatory mechanisms involved the expression of the different virulence factors produced by the opportunistic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, that include the biosurfactants rhamnolipids. Rhamnolipids are non-toxic and environmental-friendly, and have several biotechnological applications, so they are now in the market. We have reported the rhamnolipids biosynthetic root and the regulation of their expression in different isolates that are atypical, and refractory to alternative therapeutic approaches based on antivirulence strategies.In addition, we have reported the construction of strains that produce high levels of rhamnolipids and are non-virulent. The technique describe, enable the detection and quantification of rhamnolipids by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This protocol is accurate and reproducible and do not need expensive equipment.

In this article, three different P. aeruginosa type strains were utilized to represent three phylogroups, each with varying RL production levels and proportions of mRL and dRL. These strains include PAO1 (a wound isolate from Australia, 195522), PA14 (a plant isolate from the USA, 197723), and PA7 (a clinical isolate from Argentina, 201024). As a negative control, the PAO1 rhlA mutant was employed, which is incapable of RL production. All st...

Read this Scientific Article Protocol about Author Spotlight: Understanding Rhamnolipid Regulation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa at JoVE.com

Pseudomonas aeruginosa&#160;produces the rhamnolipid biosurfactants. Thin-layer chromatography detects and determines the proportion of mono- and di-rhamnolipids produced by each strain. Quantification of total rhamnolipids involves assessing rhamnose equivalents present in these biosurfactants extracted from the culture supernatants using the orcinol method.

The environmental bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen with high antibiotic resistance that represents a health hazard. This ...

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JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Rhamnolipid Detection in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Supernatants Using TLC

To begin, transfer five milliliters of an acidified culture supernatant of pseudomonas aeruginosa into a 50-milliliter polypropylene tube. Add five milliliters of chloroform methanol mixture into this tube. Invert the tube three times for 30 seconds to agitate and mix the solution.Leave the tube without inversion for two minutes between each agitation. Centrifuge the tube for 10 minutes at 3000 G at four degrees Celsius, then transfer the organic phase into a clean tube. Leave the tube in an extraction hood until it is dried.Next, use a 10-microliter pipette to apply five microliters of the samples onto a TLC plate. To prepare the liquid phase, mix 26 milliliters of chloroform, six milliliters of methanol, and 0.8 milliliters of 20%acetic acid. Place the solvent mix in a closed TLC chamber for at least 10 minutes to saturate it.Transfer the TLC plate into the chamber, avoiding contact with the sample application points. Leave the TLC plate in the closed chamber until the solvent reaches one centimeter before the edge of the plate. At this point, remove the plate and let it dry.To detect the presence of rhamnolipids, spray alpha naphthol solution onto the plate in the extraction hood, then place a sprayed plate in an oven at 85-degrees Celsius for several minutes until the pinkish mark of the rhamnolipid lipid is visible. All three pseudomonas aeruginosa strains produce different amounts of mono and di-rhamnolipids.

Quantification of Rhamnolipids Present in the Biosurfactant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

To begin pipette 1.2 milliliters of a 24-hour culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa into a 1.5 milliliter centrifuge tube. Centrifuge the tube at 3000 G for four degrees Celsius for three minutes. Collect the supernatant in a clean tube.Pipette 333 microliters of the supernatant into a clean tube. Then add one milliliter of ether into the tube. Mix the solution in a vortex for 30 seconds.After all the tubes have been vortexed, centrifuge them at 3000 G at four degrees Celsius for two minutes. Then collect the organic phase and transfer it into a clean tube tube. Place the solution in an extraction hood until it is dried.Next place a clean flask covered with foil paper in ice for five minutes to prepare a 60%sulfuric acid solution. Use this sulfuric acid solution to prepare the orcinol reagent. Add 100 microliters of each Rhamnolipid sample to a glass tube and add 900 microliters of orcinol to the samples.After mixing the solutions together, incubate the sample in a water bath at 80 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes. When the tube cools to room temperature, transfer a sample to a quart cell and place it in the spectrophotometer to read the absorbance at 421 nanometers. The strain PA14 produces the highest amount of rhamnose equivalents while strain PA7 produces the lowest amount.

537 Views.  Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.  Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces the rhamnolipid biosurfactants. Thin-layer chromatography detects and determines the proportion of mono- and di-rhamnolipids produced by each strain. Quantification of total rhamnolipids involves assessing rhamnose equivalents present in these biosurfactants extracted from the culture supernatants using the orcinol method.

Comparative Analysis of Rhamnolipid Production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains

Summary