Name: an image guided transapical mitral valve leaflet puncture model of controlled volume overload from mitral regurgitation in the rat
Uploaded: 2020-05-19T14:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Image Guided Transapical Mitral Valve Leaflet Puncture Model of Controlled Volume Overload from Mitral Regurgitation in the Rat at JoVE.com

This work was funded by grant 19PRE34380625 and 14SDG20380081 from the American Heart Association to D. Corporan and M. Padala respectively, grants HL135145, HL133667, and HL140325 from the National Institutes of Health to M. Padala, and infrastructure funding from the Carlyle Fraser Heart Center at Emory University Hospital Midtown to M. Padala.

Procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Program at Emory University under the protocol number EM63Rr, approval date 06/06/2017.
1. Pre-surgical preparation
<ol>
	<li>Steam sterilize surgical instruments prior to the procedure.</li>
	<li>On the procedure day, transfer rats from housing to surgery, and weigh them.</li>
	<li>Draw pre-operative and post-operative drugs according to the weight: two doses of Carprofen (2.5 mg/kg each), one dose of Gentamycin (6 mg/kg), and one dose of ...

<ol>
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P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wall+stress+and+patterns+of+hypertrophy+in+the+human+left+ventricle.">Wall stress and patterns of hypertrophy in the human left ventricle.</a> Journal of Clinical Investigation. 56 (1), 56-64 (1975).</li><li>Carabello, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Concentric+versus+eccentric+remodeling.">Concentric versus eccentric remodeling.</a> Journal of Cardiac Failure. 8 (6), S258-S263 (2002).</li><li>Braunwald, E., Welch, G. H., Sarnoff, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hemodynamic+effects+of+quantitatively+varied+experimental+mitral+regurgitation.">Hemodynamic effects of quantitatively varied experimental mitral regurgitation.</a> Circulation Research. 5 (5), 539-545 (1957).</li><li>Sasayama, S., Kubo, S., Kusukawa, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hemodynamic+and+angiocardiographic+studies+on+cardiodynamics:+experimental+mitral+insufficiency.">Hemodynamic and angiocardiographic studies on cardiodynamics: experimental mitral insufficiency.</a> Japanese Circulation Journal. 34 (6), 513-530 (1970).</li><li>Hennein, H., Jones, M., Stone, C., Clark, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Left+ventricular+function+in+experimental+mitral+regurgitation+with+intact+chordae+tendineae.">Left ventricular function in experimental mitral regurgitation with intact chordae tendineae.</a> Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 105 (4), 624-632 (1993).</li><li>Stumpe, K. O., S&#246;lle, H., Klein, H., Kr&#252;ck, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+sodium+and+water+retention+in+rats+with+experimental+heart+failure.">Mechanism of sodium and water retention in rats with experimental heart failure.</a> Kidney International. 4 (5), 309-317 (1973).</li><li>Abassi, Z., Goltsman, I., Karram, T., Winaver, J., Hoffman, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aortocaval+fistula+in+rat:+A+unique+model+of+volume-overload+congestive+heart+failure+and+cardiac+hypertrophy.">Aortocaval fistula in rat: A unique model of volume-overload congestive heart failure and cardiac hypertrophy.</a> Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology. 2011 (January), 1-13 (2011).</li><li>Corporan, D., Onohara, D., Hernandez-Merlo, R., Sielicka, A., Padala, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+changes+in+myocardial+collagen,+matrix+metalloproteinases,+and+their+tissue+inhibitors+in+the+left+ventricular+myocardium+in+experimental+chronic+mitral+regurgitation+in+rodents.">Temporal changes in myocardial collagen, matrix metalloproteinases, and their tissue inhibitors in the left ventricular myocardium in experimental chronic mitral regurgitation in rodents.</a> American Journal of Physiology - Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 315 (5), H1269-H1278 (2018).</li><li>Onohara, D., Corporan, D., Hernandez-Merlo, R., Guyton, R. A., Padala, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitral+Regurgitation+Worsens+Cardiac+Remodeling+in+Ischemic+Cardiomyopathy+in+an+Experimental+Model.">Mitral Regurgitation Worsens Cardiac Remodeling in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy in an Experimental Model.</a> The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. , (2019).</li><li>Garcia, R., Diebold, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple,+rapid,+and+effective+method+of+producing+aortocaval+shunts+in+the+rat.">Simple, rapid, and effective method of producing aortocaval shunts in the rat.</a> Cardiovascular Research. 24 (5), 430-432 (1990).</li><li>Brower, G. L., Janicki, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+ventricular+remodeling+to+pathogenesis+of+heart+failure+in+rats.">Contribution of ventricular remodeling to pathogenesis of heart failure in rats.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 280 (2), H674-H683 (2001).</li><li>McCutcheon, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+changes+in+the+molecular+signature+of+adverse+left+ventricular+remodeling+in+patients+with+compensated+and+decompensated+chronic+primary+mitral+regurgitation.">Dynamic changes in the molecular signature of adverse left ventricular remodeling in patients with compensated and decompensated chronic primary mitral regurgitation.</a> Circulation Heart Failure. 12 (9), (2019).</li><li>McCutcheon, K., Manga, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Left+ventricular+remodeling+in+chronic+primary+mitral+regurgitation.">Left ventricular remodeling in chronic primary mitral regurgitation.</a> Cardiovascular Journal of Africa. 29 (1), 51-64 (2018).</li></ol>

A reproducible rodent model of severe MR with good survival (93.75% survival after surgery) and without significant post-operative complications is reported. Real-time imaging with transesophageal echocardiography and introduction of a needle into the beating heart to puncture the mitral leaflet are feasible and can be taught. Severe MR was produced with the 23 G needle size in this study, which can be varied as desired using a smaller or larger needle. MR induced in this model creates a low-pressure volume overload on t...

Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a common heart valve lesion, diagnosed in 1.7% of the general US population and in 9% of the elderly population greater than 65 years of age1. In this heart valve lesion, improper closure of the mitral valve leaflets in systole, causes regurgitation of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium. MR can occur due to various etiologies; however, primary lesions of the mitral valve (primary MR) are diagnosed and treated more frequently compared to secondary MR2. Isolated primary MR is often a result of myxomatous degeneration of the mitral valve, resulting in elongation of the leaflets or chordae tendineae, or rupture of some chordae, all of which contribute to the loss of systolic coaptation of the valve.
MR resulting from such valve lesions elevates the blood volume filling the left ventricle in each heartbeat, increasing the end diastolic wall stress and providing a hemodynamic stressor that incites cardiac adaptation and remodeling. Cardiac remodeling in this lesion is often characterized by significant chamber enlargement3,4, mild wall hypertrophy, with preserved contractile function for prolonged periods of time. Since the ejection fraction is often preserved, correction of MR using surgical or transcatheter means is often delayed, until the onset of symptoms such as dyspnea, heart failure, and arrhythmias. However, uncorrected MR is associated with high risks of cardiac adverse events, though currently knowledge regarding the ultrastructural changes underlying these events are unknown.
Animal models of MR provide a valuable model to investigate such ultrastructural changes in the heart, and study longitudinal progression of the disease. Previously, researchers have induced MR in large animals including pigs, dogs, and sheep, by creating an external ventriculo-atrial shunt5, intracardiac chordal rupture6, or leaflet perforation7. While surgical techniques are easier in large animals, these studies have been limited to sub-chronic follow-up in a small sample size, due to the high costs of performing such studies in large animals. Furthermore, molecular analysis of tissue from these models is often challenging due to limited species-specific antibodies and annotated genome libraries for alignment.
Small animal models of MR can provide a suitable alternative to study this valve lesion and its impact on cardiac remodeling. Historically, the rat model of aorto-caval fistula (ACF) of cardiac volume overload has been used. First described in 1973 by Stumpe et al.8, an arterio-venous fistula is surgically created to bypass high pressure arterial blood from the descending aorta into the low pressure inferior vena cava. The high flow rate in the fistula induces a drastic volume overload on both sides of the heart, causing significant right and left ventricular hypertrophy and dysfunction occurring within days of creating the ACF9. Despite its success, ACF does not mimic the hemodynamics of MR, a low-pressure volume overload, which elevates preload but also reduces afterload. Due to such limitations of the ACF model, we sought to develop and characterize a model of MR that better mimics the low-pressure volume overload.
Herein, we describe the protocol for a model of mitral valve leaflet puncture to create severe MR in rats10,11. A hypodermic needle was introduced into the beating rat heart, and advanced into the anterior mitral valve leaflet under real-time echocardiographic guidance. The technique is highly reproducible and a relatively good model that mimics MR as seen in patients. MR severity is controlled by the size of the needle used to perforate the mitral leaflet and severity of MR can be assessed using transesophageal echocardiography (TEE).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>23G needle</td>
			<td>Mckesson</td>
			<td>16-N231</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25G needle, 5/8 inch</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1031797</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-0 vicryl</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>J496H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6-0 prolene</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>8307H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70% ethanol</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>350600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACE Light Source</td>
			<td>Schott</td>
			<td>A20500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACUSON AcuNav Ultrasound probe</td>
			<td>Biosense Webster</td>
			<td>10135936</td>
			<td>8Fr Intracardiac echo probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ACUSON PRIME Ultrasound System</td>
			<td>Siemens</td>
			<td>SC2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Betadine</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1073829</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blunted microdissecting scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS5990</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buprenorphine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>99628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carprofen</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>7847425</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chest tube (16G angiocath)</td>
			<td>Terumo</td>
			<td>SR-OX1651CA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable Surgical drapes</td>
			<td>Med-Vet</td>
			<td>SMS40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electric Razor</td>
			<td>Oster</td>
			<td>78400-XXX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gentamycin</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>78057791</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat lamp with table clamp</td>
			<td>Braintree Scientific</td>
			<td>HL-1 120V</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic forceps, curved</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS7341</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic forceps, straight</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS7110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Induction chamber</td>
			<td>Braintree Scientific</td>
			<td>EZ-1785</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Injection Plug, Cap, Luer Lock</td>
			<td>Exel</td>
			<td>26539</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>6679401725</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mechanical ventilator</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>Inspira ASV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissecting forceps</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS5135</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microdissecting spring scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS5603</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle holder</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS6417</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>No. 15 surgical blade</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1642</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-woven sponges</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>446036</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Otoscope</td>
			<td>Welch Allyn</td>
			<td>23862</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen</td>
			<td>Airgas Healthcare</td>
			<td>UN1072</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pulse Oximeter</td>
			<td>Nonin Medical</td>
			<td>2500A VET</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retractor, Blunt 4x4</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS6524</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rodent Surgical Monitor</td>
			<td>Indus Instruments</td>
			<td>113970</td>
			<td>The integrated platform allows for monitoring of vital signs and surgical warming</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scale</td>
			<td>Salter Brecknell</td>
			<td>LPS 150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel Handle</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS9843</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silk suture 3-0</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>220263</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small Animal Anesthesia System</td>
			<td>Ohio Medical</td>
			<td>AKDL03882</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile saline (0.9%)</td>
			<td>Baxter</td>
			<td>281322</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sugical Mask</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>188696</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical cap</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>852952</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical gloves</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>854486</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe 10mL</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1031801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe 1mL</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>1031817</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultra-high frequency probe</td>
			<td>Fujifilm Visualsonics</td>
			<td>MS250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasound gel</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>150690</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VEVO Ultrasound System</td>
			<td>Fujifilm Visualsonics</td>
			<td>VEVO 2100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an image guided transapical mitral valve leaflet puncture model of controlled volume overload from mitral regurgitation in the rat

Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a widely prevalent heart valve lesion, which causes cardiac remodeling and leads to congestive heart failure. Though the risks of uncorrected MR and its poor prognosis are known, the longitudinal changes in cardiac function, structure and remodeling are incompletely understood. This knowledge gap has limited our understanding of the optimal timing for MR correction, and the benefit that early versus late MR correction may have on the left ventricle. To investigate the molecular mechanisms that underlie left ventricular remodeling in the setting of MR, animal models are necessary. Traditionally, the aorto-caval fistula model has been used to induce volume overload, which differs from clinically relevant lesions such as MR. MR represents a low-pressure volume overload hemodynamic stressor, which requires animal models that mimic this condition. Herein, we describe a rodent model of severe MR in which the anterior leaflet of the rat mitral valve is perforated with a 23G needle, in a beating heart, with echocardiographic image guidance. The severity of MR is assessed and confirmed with echocardiography, and the reproducibility of the model is reported.&#160;&#160;

Feasibility and reproducibility 
The proposed MR model is highly reproducible, with a well defined hole in the mitral leaflet achieved in 100% of the rats used in this study. Figure 6A depicts the direction of the needle as it is inserted into the mitral valve. Figure 6B depicts a hole in the mitral valve leaflet from a representative rat explanted at 2 weeks after the proce...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Image Guided Transapical Mitral Valve Leaflet Puncture Model of Controlled Volume Overload from Mitral Regurgitation in the Rat at JoVE.com

An Image Guided Transapical Mitral Valve Leaflet Puncture Model of Controlled Volume Overload from Mitral Regurgitation in the Rat

A rodent model of left heart volume overload from mitral regurgitation is reported. Mitral regurgitation of controlled severity is induced by advancing a needle of defined dimensions into the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve, in a beating heart, with ultrasound guidance.&#160;

Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a widely prevalent heart valve lesion, which causes cardiac remodeling and leads to congestive heart failure. Though the ...

Mitral regurgitation is a common valve disease that leads to heart failure. This rat MR model can help to further our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of heart failure. This model can be used to induce MR in a beating heart mimicking the hemodynamics observed in patients with this valve lesion and making this model clinically relevant.Microsurgery and handling experience will help with replicating this protocol and familiarity with echocardiographic imaging and image interpretation are key aspects for successful needle placement. As this is an image-guided technique, visual demonstration of the methods can aid in understanding the procedure. After performing a left thoracotomy according to standard protocols in an anesthetized 350 to 400 gram adult Sprague-Dawley rat, use a 6-0 PROLENE suture and microneedle holder to place a pursestring suture on the apex of the left ventricle.Gently tether the apical suture to stabilize the apex and insert a 23 gauge needle flushed with saline and with a stopcock at the distal end into the center of the pursestring suture and into the left ventricular cavity. Using one hand to stably guide the needle, use the other hand to simultaneously manipulate the transesophageal echo probe to achieve an optimal echo view for visualizing the needle. Using real-time ultrasound guidance, advance the needle toward the ventricular side of the anterior mitral leaflet.Once the needle position is confirmed, advance the needle in one fine motion through the valve leaflet. Once through the leaflet, retract the needle into the left ventricular chamber away from the mitral valve and have an assistant turn on color Doppler imaging to confirm MR adjusting the echo probe as necessary to obtain a better view. Once the MR is confirmed, fully retract the needle from the left ventricular cavity and gently tie the pursestring suture.Then use a sterile gauze to absorb any blood on the apex and in the thoracic cavity. After five to 10 minutes of stable cardiac function, use an interrupted 4-0 Vicryl suture to approximate the ribs while reducing the isoflurane to 2%Next, insert a chest tube into the sixth intercostal space and secure the tube to the sterile drapes to avoid inadvertent advancement of the tube into the thoracic cavity, then finish approximating the ribs. Use a continuous suture to close the muscle layer with the isoflurane at 1.5%and the skin layer with the isoflurane at 1%Connect a 10 milliliter Luer lock valve tipped syringe to the chest tube and drain 10 to 12 milliliters of air from the chest cavity before removing the tube.Once the tube is removed, administer a final subcutaneous dose of Carprofen. After turning off the isoflurane, continue the mechanical ventilation while the rat weans from the anesthesia monitoring the vital signs. At the onset of spontaneous breathing, turn off the ventilation to test the ability of the rat to maintain such breathing and a good peripheral cavity oxygen saturation.Once the rat is able to maintain peripheral capillary oxygen saturation levels without the ventilation, cut the anchoring sutures to the endotracheal tube and extubate the animal. When the rat is ambulatory, transfer the animal to a clean cage with minimal bedding and continue to monitor the vital signs with a handheld peripheral capillary oxygen saturation monitor. Within three hours of waking, administer buprenorphine.Two weeks after surgery, place the anesthetized rat in the right decubitus position and insert an eight megahertz 8-French intracardiac ultrasound probe with a small amount of gel applied to the tip into the esophagus of the animal. Using color Doppler imaging in the two-chamber view, visualize the left ventricle and left atrium and measure the area of the left atrium and MR jet to allow calculation of the MR jet area fraction as indicated. To approximate the area of the regurgitant orifice, use the outer diameter of the needle to calculate the area of 23 gauge needle using the formula.Obtain continuous wave Doppler imaging with the Doppler gate at the orifice of the regurgitant jet and trace the waveform to compute the velocity time integral of the regurgitant jet. Use the formula to estimate the MR volume. Then rotate the echo probe laterally clockwise to obtain pulse wave Doppler imaging of the pulmonary vein and measure the systolic and diastolic wave velocities using the equation to calculate the ratio.In these images, the direction of the needle as it is inserted into the mitral valve can be observed. Here, the hole left in the mitral valve leaflet in a representative rat explanted at two weeks after the procedure is shown. At two weeks post-surgery, the hearts from rats with MR are spherical and severely dilated and a vivid MR jet is apparent with an average area of about 21 square millimeters and a mean velocity time integral of about 40 centimeters.The normalized MR fraction is typically about 42%which is considered severe according to the guidelines of the American Society of Echocardiography. The severity of the MR is adequate to induce pulmonary flow reversal with a decrease in the systolic/diastolic ratio from about 0.9 at baseline to approximately minus 0.7 at two weeks. Real-time imaging with transesophageal echocardiography and the introduction of a needle into the beating heart to puncture the mitral leaflet is a feasible surgical procedure that can be taught.Our model can be combined with ventricular cardiomyopathies to study cardiac remodeling and facilitates investigating of the impact of early onset versus late onset of MR on cardiac remodeling.

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Medicine

High-frequency High-resolution Echocardiography: First Evidence on Non-invasive Repeated Measure of Myocardial Strain, Contractility, and Mitral Regurgitation in the Ischemia-reperfused Murine Heart

Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) was surgically performed in murine hearts which were then subjected to repeated imaging to monitor temporal changes in functional parameters of key clinical significance. Two-dimensional movies were acquired at high frame rate (8 kHz) and were utilized to estimate high-quality myocardial strain. Two-dimensional elastograms (strain images), as well as strain profiles, were visualized. Results were powerful in quantitatively assessing IR-induced changes in cardiac events including left-ventricular (LV) contraction, LV relaxation and isovolumetric phases of both pre-IR and post-IR beating hearts in intact mice. In addition, compromised sector-wise wall motion and anatomical deformation in the infarcted myocardium were visualized.  The elastograms were uniquely able to provide information on the following parameters in addition to standard physiological indices that are known to be affected by myocardial infarction in the mouse: internal diameters of mitral valve orifice and aorta, effective regurgitant orifice, myocardial strain (circumferential as well as radial), turbulence in blood flow pattern as revealed by the color Doppler movies and velocity profiles, asynchrony in LV sector, and changes in the length and direction of vectors demonstrating slower and asymmetrical wall movement. This work emphasizes on the visual demonstration of how such analyses are performed. 

High-frequency High-resolution Echocardiography: First Evidence on Non-invasive Repeated Measure of Myocardial Strain, Contractility, and Mitral Regurgitation in the Ischemia-reperfused Murine Heart 

High frequency Doppler ultrasound is a novel technology for assessing regional myocardial function. This work presents first evidence demonstrating applicability of this versatile imaging platform for the repeated measure of myocardial strain, dp/dt, and mitral regurgitation in the ischemia-reperfused (IR) murine heart.

Ischemia-reperfusion (IR) was surgically performed in murine hearts which were then subjected to repeated imaging to monitor temporal changes in ...

MRI-guided Disruption of the Blood-brain Barrier using Transcranial Focused Ultrasound in a Rat Model

Focused ultrasound (FUS) disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an increasingly investigated technique for circumventing the BBB1-5. The BBB is a significant obstacle to pharmaceutical treatments of brain disorders as it limits the passage of molecules from the vasculature into the brain tissue to molecules less than approximately 500 Da in size6. FUS induced BBB disruption (BBBD) is temporary and reversible4 and has an advantage over chemical means of inducing BBBD by being highly localized. FUS induced BBBD provides a means for investigating the effects of a wide range of therapeutic agents on the brain, which would not otherwise be deliverable to the tissue in sufficient concentration. While a wide range of ultrasound parameters have proven successful at disrupting the BBB2,5,7, there are several critical steps in the experimental procedure to ensure successful disruption with accurate targeting. This protocol outlines how to achieve MRI-guided FUS induced BBBD in a rat model, with a focus on the critical animal preparation and microbubble handling steps of the experiment.

Microbubble-mediated focused ultrasound disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a promising technique for non-invasive targeted drug delivery in the brain1-3. This protocol outlines the experimental procedure for MRI-guided transcranial BBB disruption in a rat model.

Focused ultrasound (FUS) disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an increasingly investigated technique for circumventing the BBB1-5. The BBB is a ...

Subclavian Vein Puncture As an Alternative Method of Blood Sample Collection in Rats

Blood collection with enough blood volume is essential in animal experiments. Blood collection from the tail vein of rats is popular and less stressful compared to other more aggressive methods such as retro-orbital plexus sample collection. However, this blood collection method is sometimes limited by an unsatisfactory success rate. Here, we introduce a method for blood collection through the subclavian vein puncture. The subclavian vein is located just under the clavicle and this vein is large enough to fulfill the volume requirements of blood collection. Our results show that this method is safe and applicable for blood collection sampling with the required blood volume. Blood collection through the subclavian vein puncture could serve as an alternative blood collection method in case of failed tail vein blood sampling in rats.

Here, we present a protocol to collect blood samples from the rat subclavian vein.

Blood collection with enough blood volume is essential in animal experiments. Blood collection from the tail vein of rats is popular and less stressful ...

A Simplified Stepwise Approach to Echo Guidance during Percutaneous Mitral Valve Repair

Percutaneous transcatheter edge-to-edge reconstruction of the mitral valve is a safe and well-established therapy for severe symptomatic mitral regurgitation in patients with high surgical risk. Echocardiographic guidance in addition to fluoroscopy is the gold standard and should be performed using a standardized technique.
This article lays out our reproducible step by step echocardiographic guide including views, measurements as well as highlighting possible difficulties that may arise during the procedure.
This article provides detailed and chronological echocardiographic views for each step of the procedure, especially preferences between 2D and 3D imaging. If needed, pulse wave, continuous wave and color doppler measurements are described. Furthermore, as there are no official recommendations for the quantification of mitral regurgitation during the percutaneous edge-to-edge-repair procedure, advice is also included for echocardiographic quantification after grasping the mitral leaflets and after device deployment. In addition, the article deals with important echocardiographic views to prevent and deal with possible complications during the procedure.
Echocardiographic guidance during transcatheter mitral valve repair is mandatory. A structured approach improves the collaboration between interventionist and imager and is indispensable for a safe and effective procedure.

This protocol presents in detail how to perform real-time echocardiographic guidance during transcatheter mitral valve repair. The fundamental views and the necessary measurements are described for each stage of the procedure.

Percutaneous transcatheter edge-to-edge reconstruction of the mitral valve is a safe and well-established therapy for severe symptomatic mitral ...

Four-Dimensional Computed Tomography-Guided Valve Sizing for Transcatheter Pulmonary Valve Replacement

The measurements of the right ventricle (RV) and pulmonary artery (PA), for selecting the optimal prosthesis size for transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement (TPVR), vary considerably. Three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) imaging for device size prediction is insufficient to assess the displacement of the right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) and PA, which could increase the risk of stent misplacement and paravalvular leak. The aim of this study is to provide a dynamic model to visualize and quantify the anatomy of the RVOT to PA over the entire cardiac cycle by four-dimensional (4D) cardiac CT reconstruction to obtain an accurate quantitative evaluation of the required valve size. In this pilot study, cardiac CT from sheep J was chosen to illustrate the procedures. 3D cardiac CT was imported into 3D reconstruction software to build a 4D sequence which was divided into eleven frames over the cardiac cycle to visualize the deformation of the heart. Diameter, cross-sectional area, and circumference of five imaging planes at the main PA, sinotubular junction, sinus, basal plane of the pulmonary valve (BPV), and RVOT were measured at each frame in 4D straightened models prior to valve implantation to predict the valve size. Meanwhile, dynamic changes in the RV volume were also measured to evaluate right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF). 3D measurements at the end of the diastole were obtained for comparison with the 4D measurements. In sheep J, 4D CT measurements from the straightened model resulted in the same choice of valve size for TPVR (30 mm) as 3D measurements. The RVEF of sheep J from pre-CT was 62.1 %. In contrast with 3D CT, the straightened 4D reconstruction model not only enabled accurate prediction for valve size selection for TPVR but also provided an ideal virtual reality, thus presenting a promising method for TPVR and the innovation of TPVR devices.

This study assessed a new methodology with a straightened model generated from the four-dimensional cardiac computed tomography sequence to obtain the desired measurements for valve sizing in the application of transcatheter pulmonary valve replacement.

The measurements of the right ventricle (RV) and pulmonary artery (PA), for selecting the optimal prosthesis size for transcatheter pulmonary valve ...

Fully Endoscopic Mitral Valve Repair with Percutaneous Cannulation of Groin Vessels

Endoscopic mitral valve surgery (EMS) has become a standard of care at specialized heart centers, further reducing surgical trauma compared to a traditional minimally invasive, thoracotomy-based approach. Exposure of the groin vessels for the establishment of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) via surgical cutdown in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) may result in wound healing disorders or seroma formation. The avoidance of surgical exposure of the groin vessels by using fully percutaneous techniques for the insertion of a CPB cannula with the implementation of vascular pre-closure devices has the potential to reduce these complications and improve clinical results. Herein, we present the utilization of a novel plug based vacsular closure device with a resobable collagen plug and the absence of suture material for closure of the arterial access for CPB in MIS. While this device was initially predominantly used in transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) procedures, with its safety and feasibility shown, we herein show that it can be used in CPB cannulation, since it is capable of closing arterial access sites up to 25 French (Fr.) in size. This device may be suitable to significantly reduce groin complications in MIS and simplify the establishment of CPB. Here, we describe the fundamental steps of EMS, including percutaneous groin cannulation and decannulation using a vascular closure device.

This protocol demonstrates in detail how to perform fully endoscopic mitral valve surgery (EMS) with percutaneous cannulation of the groin vessels, using a percutaneous plug-based vascular closure device. Fundamental steps and useful instructions are described in detail for each step.

Endoscopic mitral valve surgery (EMS) has become a standard of care at specialized heart centers, further reducing surgical trauma compared to a ...

Modified Arteriovenous Fistula Surgery to Establish the RV Volume Overload Mouse Model

Establishment and Confirmation of a Postnatal Right Ventricular Volume Overload Mouse Model

Right ventricular (RV) volume overload (VO) is common in children with congenital heart disease. In view of distinct developmental stages,the RV myocardium may respond differently to VO in children compared to adults. The present study aims to establish a postnatal RV VO model in mice using a modified abdominal arteriovenous fistula. To confirm the creation of VO and the following morphological and hemodynamic changes of the RV, abdominal ultrasound, echocardiography, and histochemical staining were performed for 3 months. As a result, the procedure in postnatal mice showed an acceptable survival and fistula success rate. In VO mice, the RV cavity was enlarged with a thickened free wall, and the stroke volume was increased by about 30%-40% within 2 months after surgery. Thereafter, the RV systolic pressure increased, corresponding pulmonary valve regurgitation was observed, and small pulmonary artery remodeling appeared. In conclusion, modified arteriovenous fistula (AVF) surgery is feasible to establish the RV VO model in postnatal mice. Considering the probability of fistula closure and elevated pulmonary artery resistance, abdominal ultrasound and echocardiography must be performed to confirm the model status before application.

Author Spotlight: Establishment and Confirmation of a Postnatal Right Ventricular Volume Overload Mouse Model  

This protocol presents the establishment and confirmation of a postnatal right ventricular volume overload (VO) model in mice with abdominal arteriovenous fistula (AVF), which can be applied to investigate how VO contributes to postnatal heart development.

Right ventricular (RV) volume overload (VO) is common in children with congenital heart disease. In view of distinct developmental stages,the RV ...

Modified Heterotopic Abdominal Heart Transplantation and a Novel Aortic Regurgitation Model in Rats

Over the past 50 years, many researchers have reported heterotopic abdominal heart transplantation in mice and rats, with some variations in the surgical technique. Modifying the transplantation procedure to strengthen the myocardial protection could prolong the ischemia time while preserving the donor&#39;s cardiac function. This technique&#39;s key points are as follows: transecting the donor&#39;s abdominal aorta before harvesting to unload the donor&#39;s heart; perfusing the donor&#39;s coronary arteries with a cold cardioplegic solution; and topical cooling of the donor&#39;s heart during the anastomosis procedure. Consequently, since this procedure prolongs the acceptable ischemia time, beginners can easily perform it and achieve a high success rate.
Moreover, a new aortic regurgitation (AR) model was established in this work using a technique different from the existing one,&#160;which is created by inserting a catheter from the right carotid artery and puncturing the native aortic valve under continuous echocardiographic guidance. A heterotopic abdominal heart transplantation was performed using the novel AR model. In the protocol, after the donor&#39;s heart is harvested, a stiff guidewire is inserted into the donor&#39;s brachiocephalic artery and advanced toward the aortic root. The aortic valve is punctured by pushing the guidewire further even after the resistance is felt, thus inducing AR. It is easier to damage the aortic valve using this method than with the procedure described in the conventional AR model. Additionally, this novel AR model does not contribute to the recipient&#39;s circulation; therefore, this method is expected to produce a more severe AR model than the conventional procedure.

This study demonstrates a reproducible heterotopic abdominal heart transplantation technique in rats that beginners can learn and perform. Additionally, a novel aortic regurgitation model in rats is generated by performing heterotopic abdominal heart transplantation and damaging the donor's aortic valve using a guidewire after harvesting.

Over the past 50 years, many researchers have reported heterotopic abdominal heart transplantation in mice and rats, with some variations in the surgical ...

Comparative Study of Blood Collection Techniques in Rats

Modified Tail Vein and Penile Vein Puncture for Blood Sampling in the Rat Model

Blood samples are required in most experimental animal designs to assess various hematological parameters. This paper presents two procedures for blood collection in rats: the lateral tail vein puncture and the dorsal penile vein puncture, which offer significant advantages over other previously described techniques. This study shows that these two procedures allow for fast sampling (under 10 min) and yield sufficient blood volumes for most assays (202 &#956;L &#177; 67.7 &#956;L). The dorsal penile vein puncture must be done under anesthesia, whereas the lateral tail vein puncture can be done on a conscious, restrained animal.
Alternating these two techniques, therefore, enables blood draw in any situation. While it is always recommended for an operator to be assisted during a procedure to ensure animal welfare, these techniques require only a single operator, unlike most blood sampling methods that require two. Moreover, whereas these previously described methods (e.g., jugular stick, subclavian vein blood draw) require extensive prior training to avoid harm to or death of the animal, tail vein and dorsal penile vein puncture are rarely fatal. For all these reasons, and according to the context (e.g., for studies including male rats, during the perioperative or immediate postoperative period, for animals with thin tail veins), both techniques can be used alternately to enable repeated blood draws.

Author Spotlight: Context Dependent Blood Collection Methods in Rats 

Here, we present a protocol to offer rapid, easy, and reliable blood collection alternatives for the rat model. We describe three different blood sampling methods according to the context: tail vein puncture under anesthesia or on a conscious animal, and dorsal penile vein puncture under anesthesia.

Blood samples are required in most experimental animal designs to assess various hematological parameters. This paper presents two procedures for blood ...

Description of a Swine Infant Model of Volume-Controlled Hemorrhagic Shock

Hemorrhagic shock is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in pediatric patients. Interpretation of the clinical indicators validated in adults to guide resuscitation and comparison between different therapies is difficult in children due to the inherent heterogeneity of this population. As a result, compared to adults, appropriate management of pediatric hemorrhagic shock is still not well established. In addition, the scarcity of pediatric patients with hemorrhagic shock precludes the development of clinically relevant studies. For this reason, an experimental pediatric animal model is necessary to study the effects of hemorrhage in children as well as their response to different therapies. We present an infant animal model of volume-controlled hemorrhagic shock in anesthetized young pigs. Hemorrhage is induced by withdrawing a previously calculated blood volume, and the pig is subsequently monitored and resuscitated with different therapies. Here, we describe a precise and highly reproducible model of hemorrhagic shock in immature swine. The model yields hemodynamic data that characterizes compensatory mechanisms that are activated in response to severe hemorrhage.

This article aims to provide researchers with a detailed and accessible guide to set up an infant porcine model of hemorrhagic shock.

Hemorrhagic shock is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in pediatric patients. Interpretation of the clinical indicators validated in adults to ...