Name: development of heterogeneous enantioselective catalysts using chiral metal-organic frameworks (mofs)
Uploaded: 2020-01-17T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Development of Heterogeneous Enantioselective Catalysts using Chiral Metal-Organic Frameworks MOFs at JoVE.com

This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) Basic Science Research Program NRF-2019R1A2C4070584 and the Science Research Center NRF-2016R1A5A1009405 funded by the Korea government (MSIP). S. Kim was supported by NRF Global Ph.D. Fellowship (NRF-2018H1A2A1062013).

1. Preparation of (S)-KUMOF-1 crystals in three sizes
NOTE: Each step follows the experimental section and supplementary information of previous reports2,24,27. Three different sizes of (S)-KUMOF-1 were prepared: large (S)-KUMOF-1-(L), medium (S)-KUMOF-1-(M), and small (S)-KUMOF-1-(S) with pa...

<ol>
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After the synthesis of (S)-KUMOF-1, crystals in some vials seem to be powdery and are not appropriate for use in catalysis. Therefore, proper crystals of (S)-KUMOF-1 need to be selected. The yield of (S)-KUMOF-1 is calculated using only those vials in which it was successfully synthesized. When withdrawn from the solvent, (S)-KUMOF-1 dismantles. Therefore, the crystals should always be kept wet. For this reason, weighi...

MOFs are considered a useful heterogeneous catalyst for chemical reactions. There are many different reported uses of MOFs for enantioselective catalysis1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19. Still, it has yet to be determined whether the reactions take place on the inner or outer surface of the MOFs. Recent studies have raised questions concerning the utilization of the available surface and reduced diffusion20,21,22,23. A more striking issue is that the chiral environment varies with the location of each cavity in the MOF crystal. This heterogeneity of the chiral environment implies that the stereoselectivity of the reaction product depends on the reaction site24. Thus, designing an efficient enantioselective catalyst requires identification of the location where the reaction would take place. To do so, it is necessary to ensure that the reaction occurs either only on the inner surface or only on the outer surface of the MOF while leaving the interior intact. The porous structure of MOFs and their large surface area containing chiral environment active sites can be exploited for enantioselective catalysis. For this reason, MOFs are excellent replacements of solid-supported heterogeneous catalysts25. The use of MOFs as heterogeneous catalysts needs to be reconsidered if the reaction does not occur inside them. The location of the reaction site is important, as well as the size of the cavity. In porous materials, the size of the cavity determines the substrate based on its size. There are some reports of MOF-based catalysts that overlook the cavity size issue25. Many MOF-based catalysts introduce bulky catalytic species (e.g., Ti(O-iPr)4) to the original framework structure3,8,13. There is a change in the cavity size when bulky catalytic species are adopted in the original framework structure. The reduced cavity size caused by the bulky catalytic species makes it impossible for the substrate to fully diffuse into the MOFs. Thus, discrimination of substrate size by the cavity size of the MOFs needs to be considered for these cases. The catalytic reactions by MOFs often make it difficult to support evidence of reactions taking place inside the MOF cavity. Some studies have shown that substrates larger than the MOF cavities are converted to the expected products with ease, which seems contradictory8,13. These results can be interpreted as a contact between the functional group of the substrate and catalytic site initiating the catalytic reaction. In this case, there is no need for the substrate to diffuse into the MOFs; the reaction occurs on the surface of the MOF crystals26 and the cavity size is not directly involved in the discrimination of the substrate based on its size.
To identify the reaction sites of MOFs, a known Lewis-acid promoted carbonyl-ene reaction was selected2. Using 3-methylgeranial and its congeners as substrates, four types of enantioselective carbonyl-ene reactions (Figure 1) were studied27. The reactions, which have been previously reported, were classified into two classes: a stoichiometric reaction using a Zn reagent and catalytic reactions using a Ti reagent27. The reaction of the smallest substrate requires a stoichiometric amount of Zn/KUMOF-1 (KUMOF = Korea University Metal-Organic Framework); it has been reported that this reaction takes place inside of the crystal27. Two kinds of MOFs were used in this method, Zn/KUMOF-1 for the stoichiometric reaction and Ti/KUMOF-1 for the catalytic reaction. Owing to the distinct reaction mechanisms of these two kinds of MOFs, a comparison between the reaction rate versus substrate size is possible2,28,29. The effect of particle size on the carbonyl-ene reaction with Zn/KUMOF-127 demonstrated that, as seen in the previous report, the chiral environment of the outer surface was different from the inner side of the MOF crystal24. This article demonstrates a method that determines the reaction sites by comparing the reactions of three kinds of substrates with two classes of catalysts and the effect of particle size as reported in the previous paper27.

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		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Daejung</td>
			<td>1009-4110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Analytical Balance</td>
			<td>Sartorius</td>
			<td>CP224S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper(II) nitrate trihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>61194</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dichloromethane</td>
			<td>Daejung</td>
			<td>3030-4465</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl zinc</td>
			<td>Acros</td>
			<td>377241000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethyl acetate</td>
			<td>Daejung</td>
			<td>4016-4410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>WF1-0900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Daejung</td>
			<td>5558-4410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microwave synthesizer</td>
			<td>CEM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Discover SP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microwave synthesizer 10 mL Vessel Accessory Kit</td>
			<td>CEM</td>
			<td>909050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N-Diethylformamide</td>
			<td>TCI</td>
			<td>D0506</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N-Dimethylaniline</td>
			<td>TCI</td>
			<td>D0665</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>n-Hexane</td>
			<td>Daejung</td>
			<td>4081-4410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normject All plastic syringe 5 mL luer tip 100/pk</td>
			<td>Normject</td>
			<td>A5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur Pipette 150 mm</td>
			<td>Hilgenberg</td>
			<td>HG.3150101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTFE tape</td>
			<td>KDY</td>
			<td>TP-75</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary Evaporator</td>
			<td>Eyela</td>
			<td>243239</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shaker</td>
			<td>DAIHAN Scientific</td>
			<td>DH.WSO04010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silica gel 60 (230-400 mesh)</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>109385</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Synthetic Oven</td>
			<td>Eyela</td>
			<td>NDO-600ND</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Titanium isopropoxide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>87560</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vial (20 mL)</td>
			<td>SamooKurex</td>
			<td>SCV2660</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vial (5 mL)</td>
			<td>SamooKurex</td>
			<td>SCV1545</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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development of heterogeneous enantioselective catalysts using chiral metal-organic frameworks (mofs)

Substrate size discrimination by the pore size and homogeneity of the chiral environment at the reaction sites are important issues in the validation of the reaction site in metal-organic framework (MOF)&#8211;based catalysts in an enantioselective catalytic reaction system. Therefore, a method of validating the reaction site of MOF-based catalysts is necessary to investigate this issue. Substrate size discrimination by pore size was accomplished by comparing the substrate size versus the reaction rate in two different types of carbonyl-ene reactions with two kinds of MOFs. The MOF catalysts were used to compare the performance of the two reaction types (Zn-mediated stoichiometric and Ti-catalyzed carbonyl-ene reactions) in two different media. Using the proposed method, it was observed that the entire MOF crystal participated in the reaction, and the interior of the crystal pore played an important role in exerting chiral control when the reaction was stoichiometric. Homogeneity of the chiral environment of MOF catalysts was established by the size control method for a particle used in the Zn-mediated stoichiometric reaction system. The protocol proposed for the catalytic reaction revealed that the reaction mainly occurred on the catalyst surface regardless of the substrate size, which reveals the actual reaction sites in MOF-based heterogeneous catalysts. This method for reaction site validation of MOF catalysts suggests various considerations for developing heterogeneous enantioselective MOF catalysts.

The enantioselective carbonyl-ene reaction using the Zn reagent is stoichiometric because of the difference in the binding affinities of the alkoxy and carbonyl groups to the metal (Figure 2). For this reason, the substrates were converted into the products at the reaction site and remained there. The desired products were obtained by dismantling the crystals, as detailed in section 4 of the protocol. The results of the heterogeneous enantioselective carbonyl-ene reaction of substrates by Zn...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Development of Heterogeneous Enantioselective Catalysts using Chiral Metal-Organic Frameworks MOFs at JoVE.com

Development of Heterogeneous Enantioselective Catalysts using Chiral Metal-Organic Frameworks MOFs

Here, we present a protocol for active site validation of metal-organic framework catalysts by comparing stoichiometric and catalytic carbonyl-ene reactions to find out whether a reaction takes place on the inner or outer surface of metal-organic frameworks.

Development of Heterogeneous Enantioselective Catalysts using Chiral Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)

Substrate size discrimination by the pore size and homogeneity of the chiral environment at the reaction sites are important issues in the validation of ...

Our idea for the reaction site validation of MOF-based catalyst gives reliable data about whether a reaction takes place on the inner or outer surface of MOFs. These methods can be used to evaluate reaction sites, which can be crucial in the design of MOF-based catalyst. Research studies of developing MOF-based catalyst may use these methods to achieve an objective perspective for catalyst characterization.Visual demonstration of these methods is essential as the techniques are difficult to run through text instruction alone. Demonstrating the procedure will be Jeehwan Han, a grad student from my research team. For small size KUMOF-1 synthesis, dissolve 0.2 milligrams of copper(II)nitrate, 0.24 milligrams of dicarboxylic acid ligand in four milliliters of DEF in methanol.Cap the reaction cell with a PTFE cap and place the cell in a microwave reactor at 65 degree Celsius, 100 pounds per square inch and 50 Watts for 20 minutes. At the end of the reaction, whisk gently with a small spatula to float the obtained blue cubic crystals and decant the crystals onto filter paper. And wash the crystals three times with three milliliters of hot DEF per wash followed by three washes with three milliliters of anhydrous DCM per wash before transferring the crystals into fresh anhydrous DCM for storage.For medium size KUMOF-1 synthesis, dissolve 7.2 milligrams of copper nitrate in 1.5 milliliters of methanol and nine milligrams of dicarboxylic acid ligand in 1.5 milliliters of DEF. Combine the two solutions in a four milliliter vial and cover the vial with PTFE tape. Puncture the tape with a needle and place the four milliliter vial into a 20 milliliter vial.Add one milliliter of DMA into the space between the small and large vials. Cap the large vial tightly for a 24 hour incubation in a 65 degree Celsius oven. Next day, whisk the formula liter vial solution gently with a small spatula to float the resulting blue cubic crystals and decant the crystals onto a piece of filter paper.Wash three crystals three times with three milliliter of fresh hot DEF and methanol as demonstrated before storing the crystals in three milliliters of fresh DCM. For zinc/KUMOF-1 crystal preparation, add 680 microliters of dimethyl zinc to 180 milligrams of suspension of KUMOF-1 in two milliliters of DCM at minus 78 degree Celsius. Shake the mixture at this temperature at 180 rotations per minute for three hours.At the end of the incubation decant the supernatant and wash the resulting product with three milliliters of cold DCM several times for the complete removal of any unreacted dimethyl zinc. And follow the KUMOF-1 crystal preparation protocol as demonstrated to obtain small, medium, and large sized zinc/KUMOF-1 crystals. To synthesize titanium/KUMOF-1 crystals add 59 microliters of titanium isopropoxide to a 24 milligrams suspension of KUMOF-1 in two milliliters of DCM.Shake the mixture for five hours at 180 rotations per minute at room temperature. At the end of the incubation, decant the supernatant, wash the resulting product with three milliliters of cold DCM several times for the complete removal of any residual titanium isopropoxide. And follow the KUMOF-1 crystal preparation protocol as demonstrated to obtain small, medium, and large sized titanium/KUMOF-1 crystals.For a heterogeneous stoichiometric carbonyl-ene reaction by zinc/KUMOF-1, add the substrate solution in 100 microliters of DCM to a 102 milligram suspension of zinc/KUMOF-1 in two milliliters of DCM at minus 78 degree Celsius. Place the reaction mixture in a cryogenic cooling bath for three and half hours with shaking. At the end of the incubation, quench the reaction with three milliliters of an aqueous 6 Normal hydrochloric acid solution and filter the resultant mixture through a diatomaceous silica pad.For heterogeneous catalytic carbonyl-ene reaction by titanium/KUMOF-1, add the substrate solution in 100 microliters of DCM to a 12 milligrams suspension of titanium/KUMOF-1, in two milliliters of DCM at zero degree Celsius. Shake the solution for 36 hours at this temperature at 180 rotations per minute. At the end of the incubation collect the supernatant and wash the resultant crystals three times with three milliliters of fresh DCM per wash.The enantioselective carbonyl-ene reaction using the zinc reagent is stoichiometric because of the difference in the binding affinities of the alkoxy carbonyl groups to the metal. Results of the heterogeneous enantioselective carbonyl-ene reaction of substrates by zinc/KUMOF-1 showed that the smallest substrate could diffuse inside the crystal and convert to the product in a high-yield proving that all of the reaction sites of the metal organic frameworks were available. The yield and the enantiomeric excess decreased as the substrate size increased suggesting that the larger substrates could not access the reaction sites inside the metal organic framework crystal.Largest substrate did not undergo the reaction in this system possibly because the reaction channel was blocked by the corresponding reaction products. If the size of the substrate is too large, the surface reaction site makes the first contact and directly blocks the entrance of the channel, which makes it impossible for other substrates to penetrate. When the size of the substrate is sufficiently small compared to the size of the void, additional substrates can penetrate the crystal.Unlike the zinc mediated system, the titanium catalyzed system provides more information about the events occurring at the catalytic reaction sites with no discrimination by substrate size. Indeed, most reactions occur on or beneath the surface and the products were immediately removed to the solution. Carefully following the steps of carbonyl-ene reaction procedures as demonstrated, it's important for obtaining reliable experimental results.Two-photon microscopy measurements will provide additional data for the actual reaction site of various kinds of MOF-based catalyst. As a verification procedure for the reaction site of the MOF catalyst is necessary. Our method can be used as a means for double checking the results.

development-heterogeneous-enantioselective-catalysts-using-chiral

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Preparation of Hydrophobic Metal-Organic Frameworks via Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition of Perfluoroalkanes for the Removal of Ammonia

Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of perfluoroalkanes has long been studied for tuning the wetting properties of surfaces. For high surface area microporous materials, such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), unique challenges present themselves for PECVD treatments. Herein the protocol for development of a MOF that was previously unstable to humid conditions is presented. The protocol describes the synthesis of Cu-BTC (also known as HKUST-1), the treatment of Cu-BTC with PECVD of perfluoroalkanes, the aging of materials under humid conditions, and the subsequent ammonia microbreakthrough experiments on milligram quantities of microporous materials. Cu-BTC has an extremely high surface area (~1,800 m2/g) when compared to most materials or surfaces that have been previously treated by PECVD methods. Parameters such as chamber pressure and treatment time are extremely important to ensure the perfluoroalkane plasma penetrates to and reacts with the inner MOF surfaces. Furthermore, the protocol for ammonia microbreakthrough experiments set forth here can be utilized for a variety of test gases and microporous materials.

Herein the procedures for plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition of perfluoroalkanes on microporous materials such as metal-organic frameworks to enhance their stability and hydrophobicity are described. Furthermore, breakthrough testing of milligram quantities of samples is described in detail.

Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of perfluoroalkanes has long been studied for tuning the wetting properties of surfaces. For high ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and technological applications. Their signature property is their ultrahigh porosity, which however imparts a series of challenges when it comes to both constructing them and working with them. Securing desired MOF chemical and physical functionality by linker/node assembly into a highly porous framework of choice can pose difficulties, as less porous and more thermodynamically stable congeners (e.g., other crystalline polymorphs, catenated analogues) are often preferentially obtained by conventional synthesis methods. Once the desired product is obtained, its characterization often requires specialized techniques that address complications potentially arising from, for example, guest-molecule loss or preferential orientation of microcrystallites. Finally, accessing the large voids inside the MOFs for use in applications that involve gases can be problematic, as frameworks may be subject to collapse during removal of solvent molecules (remnants of solvothermal synthesis). In this paper, we describe synthesis and characterization methods routinely utilized in our lab either to solve or circumvent these issues. The methods include solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries, and materials activation (cavity evacuation) by supercritical CO2 drying. Finally, we provide a protocol for determining a suitable pressure region for applying the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis to nitrogen isotherms, so as to estimate surface area of MOFs with good accuracy.

Synthesis, activation, and characterization of intentionally designed metal-organic framework materials is challenging, especially when building blocks are incompatible or unwanted polymorphs are thermodynamically favored over desired forms. We describe how applications of solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries and activation via supercritical CO2 drying, can address some of these challenges.

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and ...

Synthesis of a Water-soluble Metal&#8211;Organic Complex Array

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of a water-soluble multimetallic peptidic array containing a predetermined sequence of metal centers such as Ru(II), Pt(II), and Rh(III). The compound, named as a water-soluble metal-organic complex array (WSMOCA), is obtained through 1) the conventional solution-chemistry-based preparation of the corresponding metal complex monomers having a 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (Fmoc)-protected amino acid moiety and 2) their sequential coupling together with other water-soluble organic building units on the surface-functionalized polymeric resin by following the procedures originally developed for the solid-phase synthesis of polypeptides, with proper modifications. Traces of reactions determined by mass spectrometric analysis at the representative coupling steps in stage 2 confirm the selective construction of a predetermined sequence of metal centers along with the peptide backbone. The WSMOCA cleaved from the resin at the end of stage 2 has a certain level of solubility in aqueous media dependent on the pH value and/or salt content, which is useful for the purification of the compound.

A potential general method for the synthesis of water-soluble multimetallic peptidic arrays containing a predetermined sequence of metal centers is presented.

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of a water-soluble multimetallic peptidic array containing a predetermined sequence of metal centers such as ...

Surface Functionalization of Metal-Organic Frameworks for Improved Moisture Resistance

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous inorganic materials with promising properties in gas storage and separation, catalysis and sensing. However, the main issue limiting their applicability is their poor stability in humid conditions. The common methods to overcome this problem involve the formation of strong metal-linker bonds by using highly charged metals, which is limited to a number of structures, the introduction of alkylic groups to the framework by post-synthetic modification (PSM) or chemical vapour deposition (CVD) to enhance overall hydrophobicity of the framework. These last two usually provoke a drastic reduction of the porosity of the material. These strategies do not permit to exploit the properties of the MOF already available and it is imperative to find new methods to enhance the stability of MOFs in water while keeping their properties intact. Herein, we report a novel method to enhance the water stability of MOF crystals featuring Cu2(O2C)4&#160;paddle-wheel units, such as HKUST (where HKUST stands for Hong Kong University of Science &#38; Technology), with the catechols functionalized with alkyl and fluoro-alkyl chains. By taking advantage of the unsaturated metal sites and the catalytic catecholase-like activity of CuII ions, we are able to create robust hydrophobic coatings through the oxidation and subsequent polymerization of the catechol units on the surface of the crystals under anaerobic and water-free conditions without disrupting the underlying structure of the framework. This approach not only affords the material with improved water stability but also provides control over the function of the protective coating, which enables the development of functional coatings for the adsorption and separations of volatile organic compounds. We are confident that this approach could also be extended to other unstable MOFs featuring open metal sites.

Robust functional catechol coatings were produced in one step by direct reaction of the material known as HKUST with synthetic catechols under anaerobic conditions. The formation of homogeneous coatings surrounding the entire crystal is ascribed to the biomimetic catalytic activity of Cu(II) dimers on the external surface of the crystals.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous inorganic materials with promising properties in gas storage and separation, catalysis and sensing. ...

Electrophoretic Crystallization of Ultrathin High-performance Metal-organic Framework Membranes

We report the synthesis of thin, highly intergrown, polycrystalline metal-organic framework (MOF) membranes on a wide range of unmodified porous and non-porous supports (polymer, ceramic, metal, carbon, and graphene). We developed a novel crystallization technique, which is termed the ENACT approach: the electrophoretic nuclei assembly for the crystallization of highly intergrown thin films (ENACT). This approach allows for a high density of heterogeneous nucleation of MOFs on a chosen substrate via the electrophoretic deposition (EPD) directly from the precursor sol. The growth of well-packed MOF nuclei leads to a highly intergrown polycrystalline MOF film. We show that this simple approach can be used for the synthesis of thin, intergrown zeolite imidazole framework (ZIF)-7 and ZIF-8 films. The resulting 500 nm-thick ZIF-8 membranes show a considerably high H2 permeance (8.3 x 10-6 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1) and ideal gas selectivities (7.3 for H2/CO2, 15.5 for H2/N2, 16.2 for H2/CH4, and 2655 for H2/C3H8). An attractive performance for C3H6/C3H8 separation is also achieved (a C3H6 permeance of 9.9 x 10-8 mol m-2 s-1 Pa-1 and a C3H6/C3H8 ideal selectivity of 31.6 at 25 &#176;C). Overall, the ENACT process, owing to its simplicity, can be extended to synthesize intergrown thin films of a wide range of nanoporous crystalline materials.

A simple, reproducible, and versatile approach for the synthesis of intergrown, polycrystalline metal-organic framework membranes on a wide range of unmodified porous and non-porous supports is presented.

We report the synthesis of thin, highly intergrown, polycrystalline metal-organic framework (MOF) membranes on a wide range of unmodified porous and ...

Synthesis of Single-Crystalline Core-Shell Metal-Organic Frameworks

Because of their designability and unprecedented synergistic effects, core-shell metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been actively examined recently. However, the synthesis of single-crystalline core-shell MOFs is very challenging, and thus a limited number of examples have been reported. Here, we suggest a method of synthesizing single-crystalline HKUST-1@MOF-5 core-shells, which is HKUST-1 at the center of MOF-5. Through the computational algorithm, this pair of MOFs was predicted to have the matched lattice parameters and chemical connection points at the interface. To construct the core-shell structure, we prepared the octahedral- and cubic-shaped HKUST-1 crystals as a core MOF, in which the (111) and (001) facets were mainly exposed, respectively. Via the sequential reaction, the MOF-5 shell was well-grown on the exposed surface, showing a seamless connect interface, which resulted in the successful synthesis of single-crystalline HKUST-1@MOF-5. Their pure phase formation was proved by optical microscopic images and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) patterns. This method presents the potential of and insights into the single-crystalline core-shell synthesis with different kinds of MOFs.

Here, we demonstrate a protocol for the two-step synthesis of single-crystalline core-shells using a non-isostructural metal-organic framework (MOF) pair, HKUST-1 and MOF-5, which have well-matched crystal lattices.

Because of their designability and unprecedented synergistic effects, core-shell metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been actively examined recently. ...

A Technical Guide for Performing Spectroscopic Measurements on Metal-Organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) offer a unique platform to understand light-driven processes in solid-state materials, given their high structural tunability. However, the progression of MOF-based photochemistry has been hindered by the difficulty in spectrally characterizing these materials. Given that MOFs are typically larger than 100 nm in size, they are prone to excessive light scatter, thereby rendering data from valuable analytical tools like transient absorption and emission spectroscopy nearly uninterpretable. To gain meaningful insights of MOF-based photo-chemical and physical processes, special consideration must be taken toward properly preparing MOFs for spectroscopic measurements, as well as the experimental setups that garner higher quality data. With these considerations in mind, the present guide provides a general approach and set of guidelines for the spectroscopic investigation of MOFs. The guide addresses the following key topics: (1) sample preparation methods, (2) spectroscopic techniques/measurements with MOFs, (3) experimental setups, (3) control experiments, and (4) post-run stability characterization. With appropriate sample preparation and experimental approaches, pioneering advancements toward the fundamental understanding of light-MOF interactions are significantly more attainable.

Here, we use a polymer stabilizer to prepare metal-organic framework (MOF) suspensions that exhibit markedly decreased scatter in their ground-state and transient absorption spectra. With these MOF suspensions, the protocol provides various guidelines to characterize the MOFs spectroscopically to yield interpretable data.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) offer a unique platform to understand light-driven processes in solid-state materials, given their high structural ...

Synthesis of Low-Valent MOFs from Multitopic Phosphine Linkers

Experimental Approaches for the Synthesis of Low-Valent Metal-Organic Frameworks from Multitopic Phosphine Linkers

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are the subject of intense research focus due to their potential applications in gas storage and separation, biomedicine, energy, and catalysis. Recently, low-valent MOFs (LVMOFs) have been explored for their potential use as heterogeneous catalysts, and multitopic phosphine linkers have been shown to be a useful building block for the formation of LVMOFs. However, the synthesis of LVMOFs using phosphine linkers requires conditions that are distinct from those in the majority of the MOF synthetic literature, including the exclusion of air and water and the use of unconventional modulators and solvents, making it somewhat more challenging to access these materials. This work serves as a general tutorial for the synthesis of LVMOFs with phosphine linkers, including information on the following: 1) the judicious choice of the metal precursor, modulator, and solvent; 2) the experimental procedures, air-free techniques, and required equipment; 3) the proper storage and handling of the resultant LVMOFs; and 4) useful characterization methods for these materials. The intention of this report is to lower the barrier to this new subfield of MOF research and facilitate advancements toward novel catalytic materials.

Author Spotlight: Experimental Approaches for the Synthesis of Low-Valent Metal-Organic Frameworks from Multitopic Phosphine Linkers  

Here, we describe a protocol for the synthesis of low-valent metal-organic frameworks (LVMOFs) from low-valent metals and multitopic phosphine linkers under air-free conditions. The resulting materials have potential applications as heterogeneous catalyst mimics of low-valent metal-based homogeneous catalysts.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are the subject of intense research focus due to their potential applications in gas storage and separation, biomedicine, ...

Magnetometric Characterization of Redox-Active MOFs Solid-State Electrochemistry

Magnetometric Characterization of Intermediates in the Solid-State Electrochemistry of Redox-Active Metal-Organic Frameworks

Electrochemical energy storage has been a widely discussed application of redox-active metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in the past 5 years. Although MOFs show outstanding performance in terms of gravimetric or areal capacitance and cyclic stability, unfortunately their electrochemical mechanisms are not well understood in most cases. Traditional spectroscopic techniques, such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), have only provided vague and qualitative information about valence changes of certain elements, and the mechanisms proposed based on such information are often highly disputable. In this article, we report a series of standardized methods, including the fabrication of solid-state electrochemical cells, electrochemistry measurements, the disassembly of cells, the collection of MOF electrochemical intermediates, and physical measurements of the intermediates under the protection of inert gases. By using these methods for quantitatively clarifying the electronic and spin state evolution within a single electrochemical step of redox-active MOFs, one can provide clear insight into the nature of electrochemical energy storage mechanisms not only for MOFs, but also for all other materials with strongly correlated electronic structures.

Author Spotlight: Magnetometric Characterization of Intermediates in the Solid-State Electrochemistry of Redox-Active Metal-Organic Frameworks  

Ex situ magnetic surveys can directly provide bulk and local information on a magnetic electrode to reveal its charge storage mechanism step by step. Herein, electron spin resonance (ESR) and magnetic susceptibility are demonstrated to monitor the evaluation of paramagnetic species and their concentration in a redox-active metal-organic framework (MOF).

Electrochemical energy storage has been a widely discussed application of redox-active metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in the past 5 years. Although MOFs ...

Triazole and Tetrazole Functionalized Zr-MOFs Synthesis and Characterization

Synthesis of Triazole and Tetrazole-Functionalized Zr-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks Through Post-Synthetic Ligand Exchange

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous materials that are formed through coordination bonds between metal clusters and organic ligands. Given their coordinative nature, the organic ligands and strut framework can be readily removed from the MOF and/or exchanged with other coordinative molecules. By introducing target ligands to MOF-containing solutions, functionalized MOFs can be obtained with new chemical tags via a process called post-synthetic ligand exchange (PSE). PSE is a straightforward and practical approach that enables the preparation of a wide range of MOFs with new chemical tags via a solid-solution equilibrium process. Furthermore, PSE can be performed at room temperature, allowing the incorporation of thermally unstable ligands into MOFs. In this work, we demonstrate the practicality of PSE by using heterocyclic triazole- and tetrazole-containing ligands to functionalize a Zr-based MOF (UiO-66; UiO = University of Oslo). After digestion, the functionalized MOFs are characterized via various techniques, including powder X-ray diffraction and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Author Spotlight: Functionalizing Metal-Organic Frameworks: Advancements, Challenges, and the Power of Post-Synthetic Ligand Exchange 

Post-synthetic ligand exchange (PSE) is a versatile and powerful tool for installing functional groups into metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Exposing MOFs to solutions containing triazole- and tetrazole-functionalized ligands can incorporate these heterocyclic moieties into Zr-MOFs through PSE processes.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous materials that are formed through coordination bonds between metal clusters and organic ligands. ...