Name: in vivo calcium imaging of neuronal ensembles in networks of primary sensory neurons in intact dorsal root ganglia
Uploaded: 2023-02-10T13:20:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia at JoVE.com

This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants R01DE026677 and R01DE031477 (to Y.S.K.), UTHSCSA startup fund (Y.S.K.), a Rising STAR Award from University of Texas system (Y.S.K.), and Craniofacial Oral-biology Student Training in Academic Research (COSTAR) National Institute of Health Grant 5T32DE014318 (J.S.).

All procedures described here were performed in accordance with a protocol approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio.
NOTE: Once started, animal surgery (step 1) and imaging (step 2) must be completed in a continuous manner. Data analysis (step 3) may be performed later.
1. Surgery and securing the animal for right side L5 DRG imaging
NOTE: Bo...

<ol>
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Persistent pain is present in a wide range of disorders, debilitating and/or reducing the quality of life for about 8% of people29. Primary sensory neurons detect noxious stimuli on the skin, and their plasticity contributes to persistent pain8. While neurons can be studied in cell culture and explants, doing so removes them from their normal physiological context. Surgical exposure of the DRG, followed by Pirt-GCaMP3 Ca2+ imaging, permits the study of primary se...

Primary sensory neurons directly innervate the skin and carry somatosensory information back to the central nervous system1,2. Dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) are cell body clusters of 10,000-15,000 primary sensory neurons3,4. DRG neurons present diverse size, myelination levels, and gene and receptor expression patterns. Smaller diameter neurons include pain-sensing neurons and larger diameter neurons typically respond to non-painful mechanical stimuli5,6. Disorders in the primary sensory neurons such as injury, chronic inflammation, and peripheral neuropathies can sensitize these neurons to various stimuli and contribute to chronic pain, allodynia, and pain hypersensitivity7,8. Therefore, the study of DRG neurons is important in understanding both somatosensation generally and many pain and itch disorders.
Neurons firing in vivo are essential to somatosensation, but until recently, tools to study intact ganglia in vivo have been limited to relatively small numbers of cells9. Here, we describe a powerful method for studying the action potentials or activities of neurons on a population level in vivo as an ensemble. The method employs imaging based on cytoplasmic Ca2+ dynamics. The Ca2+ sensitive fluorescent indicators are good proxies for measuring cellular activity due to the normally low concentration of cytoplasmic Ca2+. These indicators have allowed simultaneous monitoring of hundreds to several thousands of primary sensory neurons in mice9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16 and rats17. The method of in vivo Ca2+ imaging described in this study can be used to directly observe populational level responses to mechanical, cold, thermal, and chemical stimuli.
The phosphoinositide-binding membrane protein, Pirt is expressed at high levels in almost all (&#62;95%) primary sensory neurons18,19 and can be used to drive the expression of the Ca2+ sensor, GCaMP3, to monitor neuron activity in vivo20. In this protocol, techniques are described for performing in vivo DRG surgery, Ca2+ imaging, and analysis in the right side lumbar 5 (L5) DRG of Pirt-GCaMP3 mice14 using confocal laser scanning microscopy (LSM).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Anased Injection (Xylazine)</td>
			<td>Covetrus, Akorn</td>
			<td>33197</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C Epiplan-Apochromat 10x/0.4 DIC</td>
			<td>Cal Zeiss</td>
			<td>422642-9900-000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cotton Tipped Applicators</td>
			<td>McKesson</td>
			<td>24-106-1S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved Hemostat</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>13007-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DC Temperature Controller</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>40-90-8D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DC Temperature Controller Heating Pad</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>40-90-2-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont Ceramic Coated Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11252-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FHC DC Temperature Controller</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>40-90-8D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluriso (Isoflurane)</td>
			<td>MWI Animal Health, Piramal Group</td>
			<td>501017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Friedman-Pearson Rongeurs</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>16221-14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GelFoam</td>
			<td>Pfizer</td>
			<td>09-0353-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketaset (Ketamine)</td>
			<td>Zoetis</td>
			<td>KET-00002R2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luminescent Green Stage Tape</td>
			<td>JSITON/ Amazon</td>
			<td>B803YW8ZWL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matrx VIP 3000 Isoflurane Vaporizer</td>
			<td>Midmark</td>
			<td>91305430</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro dissecting scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS-5882</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro dissecting spring scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>15023-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro dissecting spring scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS-5677</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Rectal Thermistor Probe</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>40-90-5D-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Operating scissors</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS-6812</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pirt-GCaMP3 C57BL/6J mice</td>
			<td>Johns Hopkins University</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Either sex can be imaged equally well. Mice should be at least 8 weeks old due to weak or intermittent Pirt promoter expression in younger mice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SMALGO small animal algometer</td>
			<td>Bioseb In vivo Research Instruments</td>
			<td>BIO-SMALGO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic frame</td>
			<td>Kopf Model 923-B</td>
			<td>923-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>td-Tomato C57BL/6J mice</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>7909</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Top Plate, 6 in x 10 in</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>290-TP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TrpV1-Cre C57BL/6J mice</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>17769</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss LSM 800 confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Cal Zeiss</td>
			<td>LSM800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss Zen 2.6 Blue Edition Software</td>
			<td>Cal Zeiss</td>
			<td>Zen (Blue Edition) 2.6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vivo calcium imaging of neuronal ensembles in networks of primary sensory neurons in intact dorsal root ganglia

Ca2+ imaging can be used as a proxy for cellular activity, including action potentials and various signaling mechanisms involving Ca2+ entry into the cytoplasm or the release of intracellular Ca2+ stores. Pirt-GCaMP3-based Ca2+ imaging of primary sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) in mice offers the advantage of simultaneous measurement of a large number of cells. Up to 1,800 neurons can be monitored, allowing neuronal networks and somatosensory processes to be studied as an ensemble in their normal physiological context at a populational level in vivo. The large number of neurons monitored allows the detection of activity patterns that would be challenging to detect using other methods. Stimuli can be applied to the mouse hindpaw, allowing the direct effects of stimuli on the DRG neuron ensemble to be studied. The number of neurons producing Ca2+ transients as well as the amplitude of Ca2+ transients indicates sensitivity to specific sensory modalities. The diameter of neurons provides evidence of activated fiber types (non-noxious mechano vs. noxious pain fibers, A&#946;, A&#948;, and C fibers). Neurons expressing specific receptors can be genetically labeled with td-Tomato and specific Cre recombinases together with Pirt-GCaMP. Therefore, Pirt-GCaMP3 Ca2+ imaging of DRG provides a powerful tool and model for the analysis of specific sensory modalities and neuron subtypes acting as an ensemble at the populational level to study pain, itch, touch, and other somatosensory signals.

<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64826/64826fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Representative images of L5 dorsal root ganglia of Pirt-GCaMP3 mice. (A,D) Single frame high resolution scans of L5 dorsal root ganglia of Pirt-GCaMP3 mice are shown. (B,E). Average intensity projections of 15 frames of Pirt-GCaMP3 L5 DRG ganglia from panel A and panel D, respectively...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia at JoVE.com

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia

This protocol describes the surgical exposure of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) followed by GCaMP3 (genetically-encoded Ca2+ indicator; Green Fluorescent Protein-Calmodulin-M13 Protein 3) Ca2+ imaging of the neuronal ensembles using Pirt-GCaMP3 mice while applying a variety of stimuli to the ipsilateral hind paw.

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Neuronal Ensembles in Networks of Primary Sensory Neurons in Intact Dorsal Root Ganglia

Ca2+ imaging can be used as a proxy for cellular activity, including action potentials and various signaling mechanisms involving Ca2+ entry into the ...

The number of neurons monitored using this method allows collection of neuron network data that would be impossible using older or other methods. The main advantage of this technique is the ability to monitor almost 2, 000 primary sensory neurons at once, responding directly to stimuli applied to the hind paw. This procedure is especially well suited to studying therapeutic interventions for peripheral allodynia and pain hypersensitivity.This method can be adapted to studying trigeminal or geniculate ganglia or used with genetically encoded sensors for voltage or cell signaling molecules, such as cyclic AMP. It takes practice to perform this surgery. You can practice on up to six dorsal root ganglia on a single animal.Demonstrating the procedure will be myself, with assisting from John Shannonhouse and Mr.Ruben Gomez. To begin, place the mouse on a heated pad to maintain the body temperature at 37 degrees Celsius. Locate the lumbar enlargement by feeling the pelvic bone of the mouse.Then, shave the back of the mouse above the area of lumbar enlargement. Using scissors, make a three-sided rectangular incision above the lumbar enlargement, and fold the skin away with forceps. Use the 13-millimeter spring dissection scissors to make three to four millimeters incisions on the right side of the spine.Use scissors to cut back the skin and muscles to the sides to expose the spine. Then, using eight-millimeter scissors, cut away the muscle and connective tissue to clean the transverse process of the right side L5 DRG. Try to minimize bleeding by using cotton or Gelfoam to absorb the blood.Cut open the right side L5 transverse process using Friedman-Pearson rongeurs or strong fine forceps, being careful to not touch the DRG. Next, move the mouse and heating pad onto the custom stage. Use stage tape to secure the animal and the heating pad in place.Place the nose of the animal in the nose cone for continuous isoflurane anesthesia. Secure the right hind paw sticking out to a position off the stage for easy application of the stimuli. Secure the spine in place with the stage clamps over the skin on the vertebrae or the pelvic bone just rostral and caudal to the L5 DRG.Adjust the clamps and the stage to make the surface of the DRG as level as possible. Then, place the stage below the microscope so that the objective is directly eight millimeters above the DRG when lowered. Insert the rectal thermometer.Connect the power lines to the heating pad and the rectal thermometer. Connect the nose cone to the isoflurane gas lines. Use an upright confocal microscope with a 10x 0.4 DIC objective and the associated software for imaging.Use the green FITC filter settings of excitation at 495 nanometers, emission at 519 nanometers, and detection wavelength between 500 to 580 nanometers. Under the microscope, find the surface of the DRG. Adjust the clamps on the stage so the DRG surface is as level as possible and the maximum surface area is visualized in the focal plane.Monitor the animal throughout the procedure to maintain isoflurane anesthesia without overdosing. To load the microscope rapid scanning protocol, use the typical settings of voxel size 2.496 by 2.496 by 16 microns, 512 by 512 pixels, 10 optical slice Z-stack, one Airy unit for 32 micrometers, 1%laser power of 488 nanometers and five milliwatts, pixel time 1.52 microseconds, line time 0.91 milliseconds, frame time 465 milliseconds, LSM scan speed of eight, bidirectional scanning, PMT detector gain 650 volts, and digital gain of one. Take a short, eight-cycle scan of the DRG by clicking on Start Experiment under the Acquisition tab.Create a movie by making an orthogonal projection of scans at one scan per frame over time. Manually check for image clarity and imaging artifacts, such as waves of brightness crossing the DRG. Adjust clamp position and optical section thickness, and repeat this step until a clear, high-quality movie is achieved.Then, load the microscope high-resolution scanning protocol using the typical settings of voxel size 1.248 by 1.248 by 14 microns, 1024 by 1024 pixels, six optical slice Z-stack, 1.2 Airy unit or 39 micrometers, 5%laser power of 488 nanometers and 25 milliwatts, pixel time 2.06 microseconds, line time 4.95 milliseconds, frame time 5.06 seconds, LSM scan speed of six, bidirectional scanning, PMT detector gain at 650 volts, and digital gain of one. Click on the Start Experiment button under the Acquisition tab to make a high-resolution image of the DRG. Load the microscope rapid scanning protocol, and record spontaneous activity in the DRG for 80 cycles.Generate an orthogonal projection movie, and verify that the image is of sufficient quality for analysis. For applying stimuli, set the microscope to perform 15 to 20 scans. Wait for scans one to five to complete to produce the baseline.Apply the stimulus during scans six to 10. Wait at least five minutes following each stimulus before applying the next one to prevent desensitization. For a mechanical press, hold the algometer's pincher with the paw between the paddles without touching the paw.Pinch the paw starting immediately after the end of scan five and stopping immediately after scan 10. Monitor the press force with an algometer, and ensure that it does not exceed 10 g over the desired force. For thermal stimuli, heat a beaker of water to just above the desired temperature.When the water is at the correct temperature, apply the stimulus immediately after scan five by immersing the paw in the water. Pull the beaker away immediately after scan 10. Surgical L5 DRG exposure followed by confocal microscopy allowed up to 1, 800 neurons to be imaged at once using Pirt-GCaMP3 mice.Primary sensory neurons were observed in an ensemble at a populational level for spontaneous calcium transients in the absence of stimuli and in response to stimuli in their normal physiological context. Strong stimuli or noxious heat increased calcium responses. Compared to pressing with 100 g, pressing with 300 g increased the number of neurons producing calcium transients and the delta F by F0 area under the curve.Warm heat in a non-noxious temperature range of 21 and 45 degrees Celsius increased the number of neurons producing calcium transients and the delta F by F0 area under the curve. Non-noxious temperatures activated a smaller number of neurons producing transients compared to a noxious heat stimulus at 57 degrees Celsius. Further, smaller-and medium-diameter neurons produced calcium transient spontaneously and under all stimuli, but larger-diameter neurons only produced calcium transients in response to the 300 g press stimulus.The DRG should be level and optimum optical slice thickness. It should be such that you can detect the maximum number of cells and there is no waviness in the movie. This technique has been used for analyzing sensory modalities on a populational level for somatosensation and taste and to study adjacent neurons activating in pairs or in synchronized clusters contributing to chronic and neuropathic pain.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Live-cell Imaging of Sensory Organ Precursor Cells in Intact Drosophila Pupae

Since the discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), there has been a revolutionary change in the use of live-cell imaging as a tool for understanding fundamental biological mechanisms. Striking progress has been particularly evident in Drosophila, whose extensive toolkit of mutants and transgenic lines provides a convenient model to study evolutionarily-conserved developmental and cell biological mechanisms. We are interested in understanding the mechanisms that control cell fate specification in the adult peripheral nervous system (PNS) in Drosophila. Bristles that cover the head, thorax, abdomen, legs and wings of the adult fly are individual mechanosensory organs, and have been studied as a model system for understanding mechanisms of Notch-dependent cell fate decisions. Sensory organ precursor (SOP) cells of the microchaetes (or small bristles), are distributed throughout the epithelium of the pupal thorax, and are specified during the first 12 hours after the onset of pupariation. After specification, the SOP cells begin to divide, segregating the cell fate determinant Numb to one daughter cell during mitosis. Numb functions as a cell-autonomous inhibitor of the Notch signaling pathway.
Here, we show a method to follow protein dynamics in SOP cell and its progeny within the intact pupal thorax using a combination of tissue-specific Gal4 drivers and GFP-tagged fusion proteins 1,2.This technique has the advantage over fixed tissue or cultured explants because it allows us to follow the entire development of an organ from specification of the neural precursor to growth and terminal differentiation of the organ. We can therefore directly correlate changes in cell behavior to changes in terminal differentiation. Moreover, we can combine the live imaging technique with mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) system to assess the dynamics of tagged proteins in mitotic SOPs under mutant or wildtype conditions. Using this technique, we and others have revealed novel insights into regulation of asymmetric cell division and the control of Notch signaling activation in SOP cells (examples include references 1-6,7 ,8).

Live-cell Imaging of Sensory Organ Precursor Cells in Intact Drosophila Pupae

In this video, we describe a method for live cell imaging of asymmetrically dividing sensory organ progenitor cells and epidermal cells in intact Drosophila pupae

Since the discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), there has been a revolutionary change in the use of live-cell imaging as a tool for understanding ...

Functional Calcium Imaging in Developing Cortical Networks

A hallmark pattern of activity in developing nervous systems is spontaneous, synchronized network activity. Synchronized activity has been observed in intact spinal cord, brainstem, retina, cortex and dissociated neuronal culture preparations. During periods of spontaneous activity, neurons depolarize to fire single or bursts of action potentials, activating many ion channels. Depolarization activates voltage-gated calcium channels on dendrites and spines that mediate calcium influx. Highly synchronized electrical activity has been measured from local neuronal networks using field electrodes. This technique enables high temporal sampling rates but lower spatial resolution due to integrated read-out of multiple neurons at one electrode. Single cell resolution of neuronal activity is possible using patch-clamp electrophysiology on single neurons to measure firing activity. However, the ability to measure from a network is limited to the number of neurons patched simultaneously, and typically is only one or two neurons. The use of calcium-dependent fluorescent indicator dyes has enabled the measurement of synchronized activity across a network of cells. This technique gives both high spatial resolution and sufficient temporal sampling to record spontaneous activity of the developing network.
A key feature of newly-forming cortical and hippocampal networks during pre- and early postnatal development is spontaneous, synchronized neuronal activity (Katz &amp; Shatz, 1996; Khaziphov &amp; Luhmann, 2006). This correlated network activity is believed to be essential for the generation of functional circuits in the developing nervous system (Spitzer, 2006). In both primate and rodent brain, early electrical and calcium network waves are observed pre- and postnatally in vivo and in vitro (Adelsberger et al., 2005; Garaschuk et al., 2000; Lamblin et al., 1999). These early activity patterns, which are known to control several developmental processes including neuronal differentiation, synaptogenesis and plasticity (Rakic &amp; Komuro, 1995; Spitzer et al., 2004) are of critical importance for the correct development and maturation of the cortical circuitry.
In this JoVE video, we demonstrate the methods used to image spontaneous activity in developing cortical networks. Calcium-sensitive indicators, such as Fura 2-AM ester diffuse across the cell membrane where intracellular esterase activity cleaves the AM esters to leave the cell-impermeant form of indicator dye. The impermeant form of indicator has carboxylic acid groups which are able to then detect and bind calcium ions intracellularly.. The fluorescence of the calcium-sensitive dye is transiently altered upon binding to calcium. Single or multi-photon imaging techniques are used to measure the change in photons being emitted from the dye, and thus indicate an alteration in intracellular calcium. Furthermore, these calcium-dependent indicators can be combined with other fluorescent markers to investigate cell types within the active network.

Spontaneous activity of developing neuronal networks can be measured using AM-ester forms of calcium-sensitive indicator dyes. Changes in intracellular calcium, indicating neuronal activation, are detected as transient changes in indicator fluorescence with one- or two-photon imaging. This protocol can be adapted for a range of developmentally-dependent neuronal networks in vitro.

A hallmark pattern of activity in developing nervous systems is spontaneous, synchronized network activity. Synchronized activity has been observed in ...

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, well-characterized nervous system allows identification and fluorescence imaging of any neuron within the intact animal. Simple immobilization techniques with minimal impact on the animal's physiology allow extended time-lapse imaging. The development of genetically-encoded calcium sensitive fluorophores such as cameleon 1 and GCaMP 2 allow in vivo imaging of neuronal calcium relating both cell physiology and neuronal activity. Numerous transgenic strains expressing these fluorophores in specific neurons are readily available or can be constructed using well-established techniques. Here, we describe detailed procedures for measuring calcium dynamics within a single neuron in vivo using both GCaMP and cameleon. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of both as well as various methods of sample preparation (animal immobilization) and image analysis. Finally, we present results from two experiments: 1) Using GCaMP to measure the sensory response of a specific neuron to an external electrical field and 2) Using cameleon to measure the physiological calcium response of a neuron to traumatic laser damage. Calcium imaging techniques such as these are used extensively in C. elegans and have been extended to measurements in freely moving animals, multiple neurons simultaneously and comparison across genetic backgrounds. C. elegans presents a robust and flexible system for in vivo neuronal imaging with advantages over other model systems in technical simplicity and cost.

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

With its small transparent body, well-documented neuroanatomy and a host of amenable genetic techniques and reagents, C. elegans makes an ideal model organism for in vivo neuronal imaging using relatively simple, low-cost techniques. Here we describe single neuron imaging within intact adult animals using genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicators.

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism  for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

A Procedure for Implanting Organized Arrays of Microwires for Single-unit Recordings in Awake, Behaving Animals

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell level. The technique allows experimenters to examine temporally and regionally specific firing patterns in order to correlate recorded action potentials with ongoing behavior. Moreover, single-unit recordings can be combined with a plethora of other techniques in order to produce comprehensive explanations of neural function. In this article, we describe the anesthesia and preparation for microwire implantation. Subsequently, we enumerate the necessary equipment and surgical steps to accurately insert a microwire array into a target structure. Lastly, we briefly describe the equipment used to record from each individual electrode in the array. The fixed microwire arrays described are well-suited for chronic implantation and allow for longitudinal recordings of neural data in almost any behavioral preparation. We discuss tracing electrode tracks to triangulate microwire positions as well as ways to combine microwire implantation with immunohistochemical techniques in order to increase the anatomical specificity of recorded results.

Implanting organized arrays of microwires for use in single-unit electrophysiological recordings presents a number of technical challenges.&#160;Methods for performing this technique and the equipment necessary are described.&#160;Also, the beneficial use of organized microwire arrays to record from distinct neural subregions with high spatial selectivity is discussed.

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell ...

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first neural circuit in the AOS pathway, called the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), plays an important role in establishing sex-typical behaviors such as territorial aggression and mating. This small (&#60;1 mm3) circuit possesses the capacity to distinguish unique behavioral states, such as sex, strain, and stress from chemosensory cues in the secretions and excretions of conspecifics. While the compact organization of this system presents unique opportunities for recording from large portions of the circuit simultaneously, investigation of sensory processing in the AOB remains challenging, largely due to its experimentally disadvantageous location in the brain. Here, we demonstrate a multi-stage dissection that removes the intact AOB inside a single hemisphere of the anterior mouse skull, leaving connections to both the peripheral vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) and local neuronal circuitry intact. The procedure exposes the AOB surface to direct visual inspection, facilitating electrophysiological and optical recordings from AOB circuit elements in the absence of anesthetics. Upon inserting a thin cannula into the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which houses the VSNs, one can directly expose the periphery to social odors and pheromones while recording downstream activity in the AOB. This procedure enables controlled inquiries into AOS information processing, which can shed light on mechanisms linking pheromone exposure to changes in behavior.

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) has been difficult to study in the context of sensory coding. Here, we demonstrate a dissection that produces an ex vivo preparation in which AOB neurons remain functionally connected to their peripheral inputs, facilitating research into information processing of mouse pheromones and kairomones.

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first ...

Hydraulic Extrusion of the Spinal Cord and Isolation of Dorsal Root Ganglia in Rodents

Traditionally, the spinal cord is isolated by laminectomy, i.e. by breaking open the spinal vertebrae one at a time. This is both time consuming and may result in damage to the spinal cord caused by the dissection process. Here, we show how the spinal cord can be extruded using hydraulic pressure. Handling time is significantly reduced to only a few minutes, likely decreasing protein damage. The low risk of damage to the spinal cord tissue improves subsequent immunohistochemical analysis. By performing hydraulic spinal cord extrusion instead of traditional laminectomy, the rodents can further be used for DRG isolation, thereby lowering the number of animals and allowing analysis across tissues from the same rodent. We demonstrate a consistent method to identify and isolate the DRGs according to their localization relative to the costae. It is, however, important to adjust this method to the particular animal used, as the number of spinal cord segments, both thoracic and lumbar, may vary according to animal type and strain. In addition, we illustrate further processing examples of the isolated tissues.

Here, we present a protocol for hydraulic extrusion of the spinal cord as well as identification and isolation of specific dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) in the same rodent. Compared to standard spinal cord isolation methods, this method is significantly faster and reduces the risk of tissue damage.

Traditionally, the spinal cord is isolated by laminectomy, i.e. by breaking open the spinal vertebrae one at a time. This is both time consuming and may ...

Modeling Neuronal Death and Degeneration in Mouse Primary Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) are a commonly used neuronal model, forming an abundant homogeneous population in the cerebellum. In light of their post-natal development, abundance, and accessibility, CGNs are an ideal model to study neuronal processes, including neuronal development, neuronal migration, and physiological neuronal activity stimulation. In addition, CGN cultures provide an excellent model for studying different modes of cell death including excitotoxicity and apoptosis. Within a week in culture, CGNs express N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, a specific ionotropic glutamate receptor with many critical functions in neuronal health and disease. The addition of low concentrations of NMDA in conjunction with membrane depolarization to rodent primary CGN cultures has been used to model physiological neuronal activity stimulation while the addition of high concentrations of NMDA can be employed to model excitotoxic neuronal injury. Here, a method of isolation and culturing of CGNs from 6 day old pups as well as genetic manipulation of CGNs by adenoviruses and lentiviruses are described. We also present optimized protocols on how to stimulate NMDA-induced excitotoxicity, low-potassium-induced apoptosis, oxidative stress and DNA damage following transduction of these neurons.

This protocol describes a simple method for isolating and culturing primary mouse cerebral granule neurons (CGNs) from 6-7 day old pups, efficient transduction of CGNs for loss and gain of function studies, and modelling NMDA-induced neuronal excitotoxicity, low-potassium-induced cell death, DNA-damage, and oxidative stress using the same culture model.

Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) are a commonly used neuronal model, forming an abundant homogeneous population in the cerebellum. In light of their ...

Dorsal Root Ganglia Isolation and Primary Culture to Study Neurotransmitter Release

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contain cell bodies of sensory neurons. This type of neuron is pseudo-unipolar, with two axons that innervate peripheral tissues, such as skin, muscle and visceral organs, as well as the spinal dorsal horn of the central nervous system. Sensory neurons transmit somatic sensation, including touch, pain, thermal, and proprioceptive sensations. Therefore, DRG primary cultures are widely used to study the cellular mechanisms of nociception, physiological functions of sensory neurons, and neural development. The cultured neurons can be applied in studies involving electrophysiology, signal transduction, neurotransmitter release, or calcium imaging. With DRG primary cultures, scientists may culture dissociated DRG neurons to monitor biochemical changes in single or multiple cells, overcoming many of the limitations associated with in vivo experiments. Compared to commercially available DRG-hybridoma cell lines or immortalized DRG neuronal cell lines, the composition and properties of the primary cells are much more similar to sensory neurons in tissue. However, due to the limited number of cultured DRG primary cells that can be isolated from a single animal, it is difficult to perform high-throughput screens for drug targeting studies. In the current article, procedures for DRG collection and culture are described. In addition, we demonstrate the treatment of cultured DRG cells with an agonist of neuropeptide FF receptor type 2 (NPFFR2) to induce the release of peptide neurotransmitters (calcitonin gene-related peptide (CRGP) and substance P (SP)).

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) primary cultures are frequently used to study physiological functions or pathology-related events in sensory neurons. Here, we demonstrate the use of lumbar DRG cultures to detect the release of neurotransmitters after neuropeptide FF receptor type 2 stimulation with a selective agonist.

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contain cell bodies of sensory neurons. This type of neuron is pseudo-unipolar, with two axons that innervate peripheral ...

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Lateral-line Hair Cells in Larval Zebrafish

Sensory hair cells are mechanoreceptors found in the inner ear that are required for hearing and balance. Hair cells are activated in response to sensory stimuli that mechanically deflect apical protrusions called hair bundles. Deflection opens mechanotransduction (MET) channels in hair bundles, leading to an influx of cations, including calcium. This cation influx depolarizes the cell and opens voltage-gated calcium channels located basally at the hair-cell presynapse. In mammals, hair cells are encased in bone, and it is challenging to functionally assess these activities in vivo. In contrast, larval zebrafish are transparent and possess an externally located lateral-line organ that contains hair cells. These hair cells are functionally and structurally similar to mammalian hair cells and can be functionally assessed in vivo. This article outlines a technique that utilizes a genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI), GCaMP6s, to measure stimulus-evoked calcium signals in zebrafish lateral-line hair cells. GCaMP6s can be used, along with confocal imaging, to measure in vivo calcium signals at the apex and base of lateral-line hair cells. These signals provide a real-time, quantifiable readout of both mechanosensation- and presynapse-dependent calcium activities within these hair cells. These calcium signals also provide important functional information regarding how hair cells detect and transmit sensory stimuli. Overall, this technique generates useful data about relative changes in calcium activity in vivo. It is less well-suited for quantification of the absolute magnitude of calcium changes. This in vivo technique is sensitive to motion artifacts. A reasonable amount of practice and skill are required for proper positioning, immobilization, and stimulation of larvae. Ultimately, when properly executed, the protocol outlined in this article provides a powerful way to collect valuable information about the activity of hair-cells in their natural, fully integrated states within a live animal.

The zebrafish is a model system that has many valuable features including optical clarity, rapid external development, and, of particular importance to the field of hearing and balance, externally located sensory hair cells. This article outlines how transgenic zebrafish can be used to assay both hair-cell mechanosensation and presynaptic function in toto.

Sensory hair cells are mechanoreceptors found in the inner ear that are required for hearing and balance. Hair cells are activated in response to sensory ...