Name: removal and replacement of endogenous ligands from lipid-bound proteins and allergens
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Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Removal and Replacement of Endogenous Ligands from Lipid-Bound Proteins and Allergens at JoVE.com

We would like to thank Dr. Tom Kirby, Scott Gabel, and Dr. Robert London for their help and assistance throughout this work, along with Dr. Bob Petrovich and Lori Edwards for the use of their instrumentation and their assistance in generating the Bla g 1 constructs employed in this study. We thank Andrea Adams for assistance with the mass spectrometry, and Dr. Eugene DeRose for assistance with the NMR instrumentation. This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the &#65279;NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Z01-ES102906 (GAM). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National &#65279;Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

1. Bla g 1 cloning
<ol>
	<li>Obtain gene for cockroach allergen Bla g 1.0101 (residues 34-216), representing a single repeat of the MA domain. For the sake of simplicity, Bla g 1 will be used throughout the work to represent this single repeat, rather than the entire Bla g 1.0101 transcript.</li>
	<li>Subclone the Bla g 1 gene into the desired vector. In this study, the gene containing an N-terminal glutathione S-transferase (GST) tag coupled to a tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease cleavage site was ins...

<ol>
	<li>Radauer, C., Bublin, M., Wagner, S., Mari, A., Breiteneder, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Allergens+are+distributed+into+few+protein+families+and+possess+a+restricted+number+of+biochemical+functions.">Allergens are distributed into few protein families and possess a restricted number of biochemical functions.</a> Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 121 (4), 847-852 (2008).</li><li>Dearman, R. J., Alcocer, M. J. C., Kimber, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+plant+lipids+on+immune+responses+in+mice+to+the+major+Brazil+nut+allergen+Ber+e+1.">Influence of plant lipids on immune responses in mice to the major Brazil nut allergen Ber e 1.</a> Clinical and Experimental Allergy. 37 (4), 582-591 (2007).</li><li>Ichikawa, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipopolysaccharide+binding+of+the+mite+allergen+Der+f+2.">Lipopolysaccharide binding of the mite allergen Der f 2.</a> Genes to Cells. 14 (9), 1055-1065 (2009).</li><li>Mueller, G. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+structure+of+the+dust+mite+allergen+Der+p+7+reveals+similarities+to+innate+immune+proteins.">The structure of the dust mite allergen Der p 7 reveals similarities to innate immune proteins.</a> Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 125 (4), 909-917 (2010).</li><li>Reginald, K., Chew, F. 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T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+roles+of+Bet+v+1+ligands+in+allergen+stabilization+and+modulation+of+endosomal+protease+activity.">Multiple roles of Bet v 1 ligands in allergen stabilization and modulation of endosomal protease activity.</a> Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 74 (12), 2382-2393 (2019).</li><li>Foo, A. C. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrophobic+ligands+influence+the+structure,+stability,+and+processing+of+the+major+cockroach+allergen+Bla+g+1.">Hydrophobic ligands influence the structure, stability, and processing of the major cockroach allergen Bla g 1.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (1), 18294 (2019).</li><li>Machado, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fold+Stability+is+a+key+factor+for+immunogenicity+and+allergenicity+of+the+major+birch+pollen+allergen+Bet+v1.0101.">Fold Stability is a key factor for immunogenicity and allergenicity of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v1.0101.</a> Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 137 (5), 1525-1534 (2016).</li><li>Mueller, G. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+novel+structure+of+the+cockroach+allergen+Bla+g+1+has+implications+for+allergenicity+and+exposure+assessment.">The novel structure of the cockroach allergen Bla g 1 has implications for allergenicity and exposure assessment.</a> Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 132 (6), (2013).</li><li>Mogensen, J. E., Wimmer, R., Larsen, J. N., Spangfort, M. D., Otzen, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+major+birch+allergen+,+Bet+v+1+,+shows+affinity+for+a+broad+spectrum+of+physiological+ligands.">The major birch allergen , Bet v 1 , shows affinity for a broad spectrum of physiological ligands.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (26), 23684-23692 (2002).</li><li>Seutter von Loetzen, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Secret+of+the+major+birch+pollen+allergen+Bet+v+1:+identification+of+the+physiological+ligand.">Secret of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1: identification of the physiological ligand.</a> Biochemical Journal. 457 (3), 379-390 (2014).</li><li>Ib&#225;&#241;ez-Shimabukuro, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+and+ligand+binding+of+As-p18,+an+extracellular+fatty+acid+binding+protein+from+the+eggs+of+a+parasitic+nematode.">Structure and ligand binding of As-p18, an extracellular fatty acid binding protein from the eggs of a parasitic nematode.</a> Bioscience Reports. 39 (7), 1-16 (2019).</li><li>Beyer, K., Klingenberg, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ADP/ATP+carrier+protein+from+beef+heart+mitochondria+has+high+amounts+of+tightly+bound+cardiolipin,+as+revealed+by+31P+nuclear+magnetic+resonance.">ADP/ATP carrier protein from beef heart mitochondria has high amounts of tightly bound cardiolipin, as revealed by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance.</a> Biochemistry. 24 (15), 3821-3826 (1985).</li><li>Delaglio, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nmrpipe+-+a+multidimensional+spectral+processing+system+based+on+unix+pipes.">Nmrpipe - a multidimensional spectral processing system based on unix pipes.</a> Journal of Biomolecular NMR. 6 (3), 277-293 (1995).</li><li>Johnson, B. A., Blevins, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NMR+View:+A+computer+program+for+the+visualization+and+analysis+of+NMR+data.">NMR View: A computer program for the visualization and analysis of NMR data.</a> Journal of Biomolecular NMR. 4 (5), 603-614 (1994).</li><li>Dillon, M. B. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+Bla-g+T+cell+antigens+dominate+responses+in+asthma+versus+rhinitis+subjects.">Different Bla-g T cell antigens dominate responses in asthma versus rhinitis subjects.</a> Clinical and Experimental Allergy. 45, 1856-1867 (2015).</li><li>Pasquato, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystal+structure+of+peach+Pru+p+3,+the+prototypic+member+of+the+family+of+plant+non-specific+lipid+transfer+protein+pan-allergens.">Crystal structure of peach Pru p 3, the prototypic member of the family of plant non-specific lipid transfer protein pan-allergens.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 356 (3), 684-694 (2006).</li><li>Dubiela, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+lipid+binding+on+the+tertiary+structure+and+allergenic+potential+of+Jug+r+3,+the+non-specific+lipid+transfer+protein+from+walnut.">Impact of lipid binding on the tertiary structure and allergenic potential of Jug r 3, the non-specific lipid transfer protein from walnut.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (2007), 1-11 (2019).</li><li>Abdullah, S. U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ligand+binding+to+an+allergenic+lipid+transfer+protein+enhances+conformational+flexibility+resulting+in+an+increase+in+susceptibility+to+gastroduodenal+proteolysis.">Ligand binding to an allergenic lipid transfer protein enhances conformational flexibility resulting in an increase in susceptibility to gastroduodenal proteolysis.</a> Scientific Reports. 6, 30279 (2016).</li><li>Derewenda, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+crystal+structure+of+a+major+dust+mite+allergen+Der+p+2+,+and+its+biological+implications.">The crystal structure of a major dust mite allergen Der p 2 , and its biological implications.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 318 (1), 189-197 (2002).</li><li>Lipfert, J., Columbus, L., Chu, V. B., Lesley, S. A., Doniach, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Size+and+shape+of+detergent+micelles+determined+by+small-angle+X-ray+scattering.">Size and shape of detergent micelles determined by small-angle X-ray scattering.</a> The Journal of Physical Chemistry. B. 111 (43), 12427-12438 (2007).</li><li>Pulsawat, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+house+dust+mite+allergen+Der+p+5+binds+lipid+ligands+and+stimulates+airway+epithelial+cells+through+a+TLR2-dependent+pathway.">The house dust mite allergen Der p 5 binds lipid ligands and stimulates airway epithelial cells through a TLR2-dependent pathway.</a> Clinical and Experimental Allergy. 49 (3), 378-390 (2019).</li><li>Douliez, J. P., Michon, T., Marion, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Steady-state+tyrosine+fluorescence+to+study+the+lipid-binding+properties+of+a+wheat+non-specific+lipid-transfer+protein+(nsLTP1).">Steady-state tyrosine fluorescence to study the lipid-binding properties of a wheat non-specific lipid-transfer protein (nsLTP1).</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Biomembranes. 1467 (1), 65-72 (2000).</li><li>Ogburn, R. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+dust+mite+allergens+more+abundant+and/or+more+stable+than+other+Dermatophagoides+pteronyssinus+proteins.">Are dust mite allergens more abundant and/or more stable than other Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus proteins.</a> Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 139 (3), 1030-1032 (2017).</li><li>Cabrera, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+allergens+more+abundant+and/or+more+stable+than+other+proteins+in+pollens+and+dust.">Are allergens more abundant and/or more stable than other proteins in pollens and dust.</a> Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. , 1267-1269 (2019).</li><li>Offermann, L. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+functional+characterization+of+the+hazelnut+allergen+Cor+a+8.">Structural and functional characterization of the hazelnut allergen Cor a 8.</a> Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 63 (41), 9150-9158 (2015).</li><li>Koppelman, S. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reversible+denaturation+of+Brazil+nut+2S+albumin+(Ber+e1)+and+implication+of+structural+destabilization+on+digestion+by+pepsin.">Reversible denaturation of Brazil nut 2S albumin (Ber e1) and implication of structural destabilization on digestion by pepsin.</a> Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (1), 123-131 (2005).</li><li>Smole, U., Bublin, M., Radauer, C., Ebner, C., Breiteneder, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mal+d+2,+the+thaumatin-like+allergen+from+apple,+is+highly+resistant+to+gastrointestinal+digestion+and+thermal+processing.">Mal d 2, the thaumatin-like allergen from apple, is highly resistant to gastrointestinal digestion and thermal processing.</a> International Archives of Allergy and Immunology. 147 (4), 289-298 (2008).</li><li>Bublin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+gastrointestinal+digestion+and+heating+on+the+allergenicity+of+the+kiwi+allergens+Act+d+1,+actinidin,+and+Act+d+2,+a+thaumatin-like+protein.">Effects of gastrointestinal digestion and heating on the allergenicity of the kiwi allergens Act d 1, actinidin, and Act d 2, a thaumatin-like protein.</a> Molecular Nutrition and Food Research. 52 (10), 1130-1139 (2008).</li><li>Griesmeier, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physicochemical+properties+and+thermal+stability+of+Lep+w+1,+the+major+allergen+of+whiff.">Physicochemical properties and thermal stability of Lep w 1, the major allergen of whiff.</a> Molecular Nutrition and Food Research. 54 (6), 861-869 (2010).</li><li>de Jongh, H. H. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+heat+treatment+on+the+conformational+stability+of+intact+and+cleaved+forms+of+the+peanut+allergen+Ara+h+6+in+relation+to+its+IgE-binding+potency.">Effect of heat treatment on the conformational stability of intact and cleaved forms of the peanut allergen Ara h 6 in relation to its IgE-binding potency.</a> Food Chemistry. 326, 127027 (2020).</li><li>Glasgow, B. J., Abduragimov, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ligand+binding+complexes+in+lipocalins:+Underestimation+of+the+stoichiometry+parameter+(n).">Ligand binding complexes in lipocalins: Underestimation of the stoichiometry parameter (n).</a> Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Proteins and Proteomics. 1866 (10), 1001-1007 (2018).</li><li>Aalberse, R. 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The protocol described in this work has been successfully applied to systematically study the lipid binding properties of Bla g 1. This revealed a correlation between cargo binding, thermostability, and endosomal processing, the latter of which was correlated with decrease in the generation of a known T-cell epitope with potential implications for immunogenicity9,18. In addition to Bla g 1, other allergens such as Pru p 3 and Bet v 1 have been shown to retain the...

A survey of the allergen database reveals that allergens are found in only 2% of all known protein families, suggesting common functional and biophysical properties contribute to allergenicity1. Of these properties, the ability to bind lipid cargoes appears to be strongly over-represented among allergens, suggesting that these cargoes may influence the sensitization process1. Indeed, it has been shown that the Brazil Nut allergen Ber e 1 requires co-administration with its endogenous lipid to realize its full sensitizing potential2. These lipids could potentially stimulate the immune system directly as illustrated by the mite allergens Der p 2 and Der p 7, both of which share a strong structural homology with LPS-binding proteins3,4,5. Based on this observation it was proposed that Derp 2 and Der p 7 could bind bacterial lipids and directly stimulate the host immune system through TLR4-mediated signaling, facilitating the sensitization process5,6. It is also possible that endogenously bound lipids could alter the biophysical properties of allergenic&#160;proteins themselves. For example, the ability of Sin a 2 (mustard) and Ara h 1 (peanuts) to interact with phospholipid vesicles significantly enhanced their resistance to gastric and endosomal degradation7, while ligand binding to the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 altered both the rate of endosomal processing and the diversity of the resulting peptides8. This is particularly relevant to allergenicity given the correlation that has been observed between stability, T-cell epitope generation and allergenicity for proteins such as Bet v 1 and Bla g 1; the latter of which will be the subject of this work9,10.
Bla g 1 represents the prototypical member of the insect Major Allergen (MA) protein family, and possesses a unique structure composed of 12 amphipathic alpha helices which enclose an abnormally large hydrophobic cavity9,11. The available X-ray crystal structure of Bla g 1 shows electron density within this cavity consistent with bound phospholipid or fatty acid ligands; a conjecture confirmed by 31P-NMR and mass spectrometry. These cargoes were heterogeneous in nature and their composition was heavily dependent on the allergen source, with different lipid profiles observed for recombinant Bla g 1 expressed in E. coli and P. pastoris. Curiously, Bla g 1 purified from its natural allergen source (cockroach frass) contained predominantly fatty acids within its binding site, with a mixture of palmitate, oleate, and stearate being identified as its &#8220;natural&#8221; ligands9,11. The ability of Bla g 1 to retain lipids and fatty acids following multiple purification steps hinders efforts to study the protein in isolation. Conversely, it has been suggested that the natural palmitate, stearate, and oleate ligands of Bla g 1 (henceforth referred to as nMix) play a key role in both its allergenicity and native biological function9. However, these ligands are not present in Bla g 1 obtained from recombinant sources, making it difficult to assess this hypothesis. Similar issues have been observed for other lipid binding allergens such as Bet v 112,13. To facilitate the systematic study of lipid-allergen interactions we have developed a protocol through which allergens can be quantitatively stripped of their endogenously bound lipids and reconstituted in either Apo-form or loaded with specific ligands.
Allergens are most commonly purified from their natural or recombinant sources using affinity chromatography and/or size-exclusion chromatography. Here, we introduce an additional purification step in the form of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) employing a reverse-phase C18 column from which the allergen is eluted into an organic solvent similar to protocols developed for fatty acid binding proteins14. The resulting protein is then subjected to a thermal annealing step in the absence or presence of fatty acids and/or phospholipids. In addition to recovering the native Bla g 1 fold, the elevated temperatures increase the solubility and accessibility of the lipid cargoes, yielding Bla g 1 in either the Apo-form or uniformly loaded with the desired hydrophobic ligand. 31P-NMR spectra of Bla g 1 purified in this manner confirmed&#160;the complete removal of endogenously bound ligands and uniform replacement with the desired compounds, while circular dichroism confirmed the successful recovery of the Bla g 1 fold. The utility of this method is highlighted in a recent work in which cargo binding was found to enhance Bla g 1 thermostability and proteolytic resistance, altering the kinetics of T-cell epitope generation with potential implications for sensitization and allergenicity9.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Bla g 1 Gene&#160;</td>
			<td>Genescript</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td>Custom gene synthesis service. GenBank Accession no AF072219 Residues 34-216</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Affinity purified natural Bla g 1 (nBla g 1)</td>
			<td>Indoor biotechnologies</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td>Custom order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agilent 1100 Series HPLC System</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>G1315B, G1311A, G1322A</td>
			<td>UV Detector, Pump, and Degasser</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agilent DD2 600 MHz spectrometer</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-15 Centrifugal Filter Unit</td>
			<td>Amicon</td>
			<td>UFC-1008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1760-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzonase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E1014-5KU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Broad- band 5 mm Z-gradient probe</td>
			<td>Varian</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChemStation for LC (Software)</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cOmplete Mini Protease Inhibitor Cocktail</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11836153001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distearoylphosphatidylcholine (18:0 PC)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850365C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E. Coli BL21 DE3 Cells</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>C2530H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Freezone 4.5 Freeze Dry System</td>
			<td>Labconco</td>
			<td>7750000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutathione Resin</td>
			<td>Genescript</td>
			<td>L00206</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutathione, Reduced</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP25211</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl-&#946;-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>34060</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jasco&#160; CD spectropolarimeter</td>
			<td>Jasco</td>
			<td>J-815</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Millex Syringe Filter Unit</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>SLGS033SS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NMRPipe (Software)</td>
			<td>Delaglio et al.&#160;</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td>Delaglio, F. et al. Nmrpipe - a Multidimensional Spectral Processing System Based On Unix Pipes. J. Biomol. NMR 6, 277&#8211;293 (1995).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NMRViewJ (Software)</td>
			<td>Johnson et al.&#160;</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td>Johnson, B. A. &#38; Blevins, R. A. NMR View: A computer program for the visualization and analysis of NMR data. J. Biomol. NMR 4, 603&#8211;614 (1994).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oleic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>O1008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pierce BCA Protein Assay</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>BCA1-1KT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polaris 5 C18-A 250x10.0 mm HPLC Column</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>SKU: A2000250X100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SD-200 Vacuum Pump</td>
			<td>Varian</td>
			<td>VP-195</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Cholate Hydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C6445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Palmitate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9767</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Stearate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S3381</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VnmrJ (Software)</td>
			<td>Varian</td>
			<td>N/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

removal and replacement of endogenous ligands from lipid-bound proteins and allergens

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and have the potential to influence the sensitization process either through directly stimulating the immune system or altering the biophysical properties of the allergenic protein. In order to control for these variables, techniques are required for the removal of endogenously bound ligands and, if necessary, replacement with lipids of known composition. The cockroach allergen Bla g 1 encloses a large hydrophobic cavity which binds a heterogeneous mixture of endogenous lipids when purified using traditional techniques. Here, we describe a method through which these lipids are removed using reverse-phase HPLC followed by thermal annealing to yield Bla g 1 in either its Apo-form or reloaded with a user-defined mixture of fatty acid or phospholipid cargoes. Coupling this protocol with biochemical assays reveal that fatty acid cargoes significantly alter the thermostability and proteolytic resistance of Bla g 1, with downstream implications for the rate of T-cell epitope generation and allergenicity. These results highlight the importance of lipid removal/reloading protocols such as the one described herein when studying allergens from both recombinant and natural sources. The protocol is generalizable to other allergen families including lipocalins (Mus m 1), PR-10 (Bet v 1), MD-2 (Der p 2) and Uteroglobin (Fel d 1), providing a valuable tool to study the role of lipids in the allergic response.

Using affinity chromatography, recombinant GST-Bla g 1 was readily isolated to a high level of purity (Figure 1A), producing a yield of ~2&#8211;4 mg/L of cell culture. Overnight incubation with TEV protease at 4 &#730;C is sufficient to remove the GST tag, yielding the final product at ~24 kDa. Note that in this instance there is a significant amount of GST-Bla g 1 in the flow-through and wash fractions, suggesting the Glutathione resin binding capacity was exceeded. The use of more resin or multiple cy...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Removal and Replacement of Endogenous Ligands from Lipid-Bound Proteins and Allergens at JoVE.com

Removal and Replacement of Endogenous Ligands from Lipid-Bound Proteins and Allergens

This protocol describes the removal of endogenous lipids from allergens, and their replacement with user-specified ligands through reverse-phase HPLC coupled with thermal annealing. 31P-NMR and circular dichroism allow for the rapid confirmation of ligand removal/loading, and the recovery of native allergen structure.

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and ...

Many allergens bind hydrophobic molecules. This protocol enables the complete removal and replacement of these ligands, allowing us to study their impact on structure and immunogenicity in a systematic manner. The use of reverse-phase HPLC, coupled with thermal annealing, has two advantages.It removes endogenous ligands, and it helps to solubilize ligands to open up otherwise-inaccessible binding sites. If we can determine the factors that contribute to allergenicity, we may be able to design therapies that avoid these factors. Many proteins bind lipid ligands, which are strongly retained and may influence both structure and function.Our method allows the systematic study of these interactions. The limited solubility and accessibility of many lipid cargoes may inhibit the loading process. Be sure to take care of when preparing these ligands, and to consider the need for system-specific adaptations.As working with hydrophobic and insoluble ligands is an adjustment for some allergists and biochemists, it can be useful to see what the samples look like at different stages. After cloning expression and purification, apply 12 milliliters of the cleaved Bla g 1 to a centrifugal filter unit with a less than 10 kilodalton molecular weight cutoff for multiple centrifugations in a swing bucket rotor until the total volume has been reduced to less than two milliliters. Load the resulting concentrate onto a 250 by 10 millimeter HPLC system equipped with a C18 reverse-phase chromatography column equilibrated with 97%buffer A and 3%buffer B.Elute Bla g 1 at a 1.5 to 4 milliliter per minute flow rate, as indicated in the table, using the fluorescence absorbance at 280 nanometers to monitor the elution process.Starting at around 34 to 40 minutes and a buffer B concentration above 74%collect no more than four milliliters of each Bla g 1 fraction. Aliquot the pooled Bla g 1 fraction into glass test tubes. Cover the tubes with paraffin film and perforate the film with two holes.Then, freeze the samples at minus 80 degrees Celsius for one hour and use a lyophilizer to dry the resulting de-lipidated protein samples. To determine the anticipated Bla g 1 yield, re-suspend a lyophilized de-lipidated test aliquot in five milliliters of refolding buffer. Heat the mixture in a 500-milliliter beaker containing 250 milliliters of water to 95 degrees Celsius on a hot plate with stirring and intermittent vortexing.Hold the solution at 95 degrees for 30 to 60 minutes before allowing the water bath to slowly equilibrate to room temperature. When the solution has cooled, pass the annealed Bla g 1 lipid mixture through a 0.22 micron syringe filter to remove particulate matter, and use a new centrifugal filter with a 10 kilodalton cutoff to buffer exchange the filtered protein three times into PBS to remove any residual free fatty acids and organic solvent. Then, assess the protein concentration using a standard protein analysis assay to determine the anticipated yield for the remaining Bla g 1 aliquots.To reconstitute the Apo-Bla g 1, re-suspend the Bla g 1 aliquots in five milliliters of refolding buffer per aliquot, and anneal the samples as demonstrated. To load the Bla g 1 with phospholipids, add 10 milligrams of the desired cargo to a glass test tube and dissolve in chloroform, and evaporate the chloroform to produce a lipid film. Then, add PBS to the tube to produce a final phospholipid concentration of 20 millimolar.Heat the phospholipid above the phase transition temperature of the lipid cargo to rehydrate the lipid film, and vortex until the solution turns cloudy. Then, add the phospho lipid cargo to produce a 20X molar excess of ligands relative to Bla g 1 based on the anticipated yield. A precipitant may form.Vortex to mix before annealing the protein as demonstrated. To confirm cargo removal or loading by phosphorus-31 NMR, use a centrifugal filter to concentrate the sample to greater than 100 micromolar as demonstrated. Prepare reference phospholipid samples of known concentrations in PBS buffer as indicated, and dilute the Bla g 1 end reference to a 1:1 ratio with cholate buffer to a total volume of about 600 microliters.Use a broadband probe to acquire one-dimensional, 31-phosphorus NMR spectra of the collate solubilized Bla g 1 samples and reference phospholipid standards, and compare the Bla g 1 31 phosphorous NMR spectra to those obtained for phospholipid reference samples to confirm the removal of endogenously bound ligands and/or the binding of the desired ligands based on the chemical shifts of the visible peaks, then compare the peak intensity of the Bla g 1 spectrum to that of the phospholipid reference standards to allow confirmation of the full binding stoichiometry. Using affinity chromatography, recombinant GST Bla g 1 can be readily isolated to a high level of purity, producing a yield of two to four milligrams per liter of cell culture. Overnight incubation with TEV protease at four degrees Celsius is sufficient to remove the GST tag, yielding the final product at approximately 24 kilodaltons.Applying the Bla g 1 to a reverse-phase C18 column yields a distinctive elution profile, with two large peaks at 50%buffer B, and a second large peak at 75%buffer B.Phosphorus-31 NMR spectra of Apo-Bla g 1 show no detectable phospholipids. A standard curve can be produced from the NMR using reference samples of known DSPC concentrations. Comparing the phosphorous 31 signal intensity obtained from DSPC Bla g 1 against this standard curve can be used to yield the binding stoichiometry of the lipids-per-protein.Circular dichroism spectra for Apo-and lipid-loaded Bla g 1 show minima of 220 and 210 nanometers, indicative of a predominantly alpha-helical structure. Circular dichroism-based thermal denaturation assays also show a co-operative loss of alpha-helical secondary structure, indicative of a folded globular domain. In addition, analysis of the resulting melting temperatures reveals a significant increase upon nMix ligand binding, consistent with Bla g 1 obtained from its natural allergen source.The success of this protocol relies on the ability to overcome both the limited solubility of hydrophobic ligands, and the inaccessible nature of the Bla g 1 binding cavity. This procedure lays the groundwork for immunological studies, such as T-cell proliferation assays, to assess the effect of lipid ligands on sensitization and the molecular mechanisms through which this occurs. Coupling this procedure with further biophysical assays, we have shown that the binding of hydrophobic ligands enhances Bla g 1 stability, with potential downstream implications for epitope generation and allergenicity.

removal-replacement-endogenous-ligands-from-lipid-bound-proteins

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Isolation of Intermediate Filament Proteins from Multiple Mouse Tissues to Study Aging-associated Post-translational Modifications

Intermediate filaments (IFs), together with actin filaments and microtubules, form the cytoskeleton &#8211; a critical structural element of every cell. Normal functioning IFs provide cells with mechanical and stress resilience, while a dysfunctional IF cytoskeleton compromises cellular health and has been associated with many human diseases. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) critically regulate IF dynamics in response to physiological changes and under stress conditions. Therefore, the ability to monitor changes in the PTM signature of IFs can contribute to a better functional understanding, and ultimately conditioning, of the IF system as a stress responder during cellular injury. However, the large number of IF proteins, which are encoded by over 70 individual genes and expressed in a tissue-dependent manner, is a major challenge in sorting out the relative importance of different PTMs. To that end, methods that enable monitoring of PTMs on IF proteins on an organism-wide level, rather than for isolated members of the family, can accelerate research progress in this area. Here, we present biochemical methods for the isolation of the total, detergent-soluble, and detergent-resistant fraction of IF proteins from 9 different mouse tissues (brain, heart, lung, liver, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, kidney, and spleen). We further demonstrate an optimized protocol for rapid isolation of IF proteins by using lysing matrix and automated homogenization of different mouse tissues. The automated protocol is useful for profiling IFs in experiments with high sample volume (such as in disease models involving multiple animals and experimental groups). The resulting samples can be utilized for various downstream analyses, including mass spectrometry-based PTM profiling. Utilizing these methods, we provide new data to show that IF proteins in different mouse tissues (brain and liver) undergo parallel changes with respect to their expression levels and PTMs during aging.

In this method, we present biochemical procedures for rapid and efficient isolation of intermediate filament (IF) proteins from multiple mouse tissues. Isolated IFs can be used to study changes in post-translational modifications by mass spectrometry and other biochemical assays.

Intermediate filaments (IFs), together with actin filaments and microtubules, form the cytoskeleton &#8211; a critical structural element of every cell. ...

Purification of Biotinylated Cell Surface Proteins from Rhipicephalus microplus Epithelial Gut Cells

Rhipicephalus microplus &#8211; the cattle tick &#8211; is the most significant ectoparasite in terms of economic impact on livestock as a vector of several pathogens. Efforts have been dedicated to the cattle tick control to diminish its deleterious effects, with focus on the discovery of vaccine candidates, such as BM86, located on the surface of the tick gut epithelial cells. Current research focuses upon the utilization of cDNA and genomic libraries, to screen for other vaccine candidates. The isolation of tick gut cells constitutes an important advantage in investigating the composition of surface proteins upon the tick gut cells membrane. This paper constitutes a novel and feasible method for the isolation of epithelial cells, from the tick gut contents of semi-engorged R. microplus. This protocol utilizes TCEP and EDTA to release the epithelial cells from the subepithelial support tissues and a discontinuous density centrifugation gradient to separate epithelial cells from other cell types. Cell surface proteins were biotinylated and isolated from the tick gut epithelial cells, using streptavidin-linked magnetic beads allowing for downstream applications in FACS or LC-MS/MS-analysis.

Purification of Biotinylated Cell Surface Proteins from Rhipicephalus microplus Epithelial Gut Cells

A modified density centrifugation gradient-based methodology was utilized to isolate epithelial cells from Rhipicephalus microplus gut tissue. Surface-bound proteins were biotinylated and purified through streptavidin magnetic beads for utilization in downstream applications.

Rhipicephalus microplus &#8211; the cattle tick &#8211; is the most significant ectoparasite in terms of economic impact on livestock as a vector of ...

Optimized Protocol for the Extraction of Proteins from the Human Mitral Valve

Analysis of the cellular proteome can help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying diseases due to the development of technologies that permit the large-scale identification and quantification of the proteins present in complex biological systems.The knowledge gained from a proteomic approach can potentially lead to a better understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying diseases, allowing for the identification of novel diagnostic and prognostic disease markers, and, hopefully, of therapeutic targets. However, the cardiac mitral valve represents a very challenging sample for proteomic analysis because of the low cellularity in proteoglycan and collagen-enriched extracellular matrix. This makes it challenging to extract proteins for a global proteomic analysis. This work describes a protocol that is compatible with subsequent protein analysis, such as quantitative proteomics and immunoblotting. This can allow for the correlation of data concerning protein expression with data on quantitative mRNA expression and non-quantitative immunohistochemical analysis. Indeed, these approaches, when performed together, will lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying diseases, from mRNA to post-translational protein modification. Thus, this method can be relevant to researchers interested in the study of cardiac valve physiopathology.

The protein composition of the human mitral valve is still partially unknown, because its analysis is complicated by low cellularity and therefore by low protein biosynthesis. This work provides a protocol to efficiently extract protein for the analysis of the mitral valve proteome.

Analysis of the cellular proteome can help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying diseases due to the development of technologies that permit ...

A Simple Fractionated Extraction Method for the Comprehensive Analysis of Metabolites, Lipids, and Proteins from a Single Sample

Understanding of complex biological systems requires the measurement, analysis and integration of multiple compound classes of the living cell, usually determined by transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomics and lipidomic measurements. In this protocol, we introduce a simple method for the reproducible extraction of metabolites, lipids and proteins from biological tissues using a single aliquot per sample. The extraction method is based on a methyl tert-butyl ether: methanol: water system for liquid: liquid partitioning of hydrophobic and polar metabolites into two immiscible phases along with the precipitation of proteins and other macromolecules as a solid pellet. This method, therefore, provides three different fractions of specific molecular composition, which are fully compatible with common high throughput 'omics' technologies such as liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC) coupled to mass spectrometers. Even though the method was initially developed for the analysis of different plant tissue samples, it has proved to be fully compatible for the extraction and analysis of biological samples from systems as diverse as algae, insects, and mammalian tissues and cell cultures.

A protocol for comprehensive extraction of lipids, metabolites and proteins from biological tissues using one sample is presented.

Understanding of complex biological systems requires the measurement, analysis and integration of multiple compound classes of the living cell, usually ...

Measuring Biomolecular DSC Profiles with Thermolabile Ligands to Rapidly Characterize Folding and Binding Interactions

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a powerful technique for quantifying thermodynamic parameters governing biomolecular folding and binding interactions. This information is critical in the design of new pharmaceutical compounds. However, many pharmaceutically relevant ligands are chemically unstable at the high temperatures used in DSC analyses. Thus, measuring binding interactions is challenging because the concentrations of ligands and thermally-converted products are constantly changing within the calorimeter cell. Here, we present a protocol using thermolabile ligands and DSC for rapidly obtaining thermodynamic and kinetic information on the folding, binding, and ligand conversion processes. We have applied our method to the DNA aptamer MN4 that binds to the thermolabile ligand cocaine. Using a new global fitting analysis that accounts for thermolabile ligand conversion, the complete set of folding and binding parameters are obtained from a pair of DSC experiments. In addition, we show that the rate constant for thermolabile ligand conversion may be obtained with only one supplementary DSC dataset. The guidelines for identifying and analyzing data from several more complicated scenarios are presented, including irreversible aggregation of the biomolecule, slow folding, slow binding, and rapid depletion of the thermolabile ligand.

We present a protocol for rapid characterization of biomolecular folding and binding interactions with thermolabile ligands using differential scanning calorimetry.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a powerful technique for quantifying thermodynamic parameters governing biomolecular folding and binding ...

Utilizing a Comprehensive Immunoprecipitation Enrichment System to Identify an Endogenous Post-translational Modification Profile for Target Proteins

It is now well-appreciated that post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an integral role in regulating a protein&#39;s structure and function, which may be essential for a given protein&#39;s role both physiologically and pathologically. Enrichment of PTMs is often necessary when investigating the PTM status of a target protein, because PTMs are often transient and relatively low in abundance. Many pitfalls are encountered when enriching for a PTM of a target protein, such as buffer incompatibility, the target protein antibody is not IP-compatible, loss of PTM signal, and others. The degree of difficulty is magnified when investigating multiple PTMs like acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation 2/3, and tyrosine phosphorylation for a given target protein. Studying a combination of these PTMs may be necessary, as crosstalk between PTMs is prevalent and critical for protein regulation. Often, these PTMs are studied in different lysis buffers and with unique inhibitor compositions. To simplify the process, a unique denaturing lysis system was developed that effectively isolates and preserves these four PTMs; thus, enabling investigation of potential crosstalk in a single lysis system. A unique filter system was engineered to remove contaminating genomic DNA from the lysate, which is a problematic by-product of denaturing buffers. Robust affinity matrices targeting each of the four PTMs were developed in concert with the buffer system to maximize the enrichment and detection of the endogenous states of these four PTMs. This comprehensive PTM detection toolset streamlines the process of obtaining critical information about whether a protein is modified by one or more of these PTMs.

Investigating multiple, endogenous post-translational modifications for a target protein can be extremely challenging. Techniques described here utilize an optimized lysis buffer and filter system developed with specific PTM-targeting, affinity matrices to detect the acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation 2/3, and tyrosine phosphorylation modifications for a target protein using a single, streamlined system.

It is now well-appreciated that post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an integral role in regulating a protein&#39;s structure and function, which ...

Transverse Sectioning of Mature Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Kernels for Scanning Electron Microscopy Imaging Using Pipette Tips as Immobilization Support

Starch granules (SGs) exhibit different morphologies depending on the plant species, especially in the endosperm of the Poaceae family. Endosperm phenotyping can be used to classify genotypes based on SG morphotype using scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis. SGs can be visualized using SEM by slicing through the kernel (pericarp, aleurone layers, and endosperm) and exposing the organellar contents. Current methods require the rice kernel to be embedded in plastic resin and sectioned using a microtome or embedded in a truncated pipette tip and sectioned by hand using a razor blade. The former method requires specialized equipment and is time-consuming, while the latter introduces a new host of problems depending on rice genotype. Chalky rice varieties, particularly, pose a problem for this type of sectioning due to the friable nature of their endosperm tissue. Presented here is a technique for preparing translucent and chalky rice kernel sections for microscopy, requiring only pipette tips and a scalpel blade. Preparing the sections within the confines of a pipette tip prevents rice kernel endosperm from shattering (for translucent or &#8216;vitreous&#8217; phenotypes) and crumbling (for chalky phenotypes). Using this technique, endosperm cell patterning and the structure of intact SGs can be observed.

Transverse Sectioning of Mature Rice Oryza sativa L. Kernels for Scanning Electron Microscopy Imaging Using Pipette Tips as Immobilization Support

This protocol allows for the preparation of transverse sections of cereal seeds (e.g., rice) for the analysis of endosperm and starch granule morphology using scanning electron microscopy.

Starch granules (SGs) exhibit different morphologies depending on the plant species, especially in the endosperm of the Poaceae family. Endosperm ...

Identifying the Binding Proteins of Small Ligands with the Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay (DRaCALA)

The past decade has seen tremendous progress in the understanding of small signaling molecules in bacterial physiology. In particular, the target proteins of several nucleotide-derived secondary messengers (NSMs) have been systematically identified and studied in model organisms. These achievements are mainly due to the development of several new techniques including the capture compound technique and the differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (DRaCALA), which were used to systematically identify target proteins of these small molecules. This paper describes the use of the NSMs, guanosine penta- and tetraphosphates (p)ppGpp, as an example and video demonstration of the DRaCALA technique. Using DRaCALA, 9 out of 20 known and 12 new target proteins of (p)ppGpp were identified in the model organism, Escherichia coli K-12, demonstrating the power of this assay. In principle, DRaCALA could be used for studying small ligands that can be labeled by radioactive isotopes or fluorescent dyes. The critical steps, pros, and cons of DRaCALA are discussed here for further application of this technique.

Identifying the Binding Proteins of Small Ligands with the Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay DRaCALA

The Differential Radial Capillary Action of Ligand Assay (DRaCALA) can be used to identify small ligand binding proteins of an organism by using an ORFeome library.

The past decade has seen tremendous progress in the understanding of small signaling molecules in bacterial physiology. In particular, the target proteins ...

Time-resolved F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Assays for Measurement of Endogenous Phosphorylated STAT Proteins in Human Cells

The Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in mediating cellular responses to cytokines and growth factors. STAT proteins are activated by tyrosine phosphorylation mediated mainly by JAKs. The abnormal activation of STAT signaling pathways is implicated in many human diseases, especially cancer and immune-related conditions. Therefore, the ability to monitor STAT protein phosphorylation within the native cell signaling environment is important for both academic and drug discovery research. The traditional assay formats available to quantify phosphorylated STAT proteins include western blotting and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). These heterogeneous methods are labor-intensive, low-throughput, and often not reliable (specific) in the case of western blotting. Homogeneous (no-wash) methods are available but remain expensive. 
Here, detailed protocols are provided for the sensitive, robust, and cost-effective measurement in a 384-well format of endogenous levels of phosphorylated STAT1 (Y701), STAT3 (Y705), STAT4 (Y693), STAT5 (Y694/Y699), and STAT6 (Y641) in cell lysates from adherent or suspension cells using the novel THUNDER time-resolved F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET) platform. The workflow for the cellular assay is simple, fast, and designed for high-throughput screening (HTS). The assay protocol is flexible, uses a low-volume sample (15 &#181;L), requires only one reagent addition step, and can be adapted to low-throughput and high-throughput applications. Each phospho-STAT sandwich immunoassay is validated under optimized conditions with known agonists and inhibitors and generates the expected pharmacology and Z'-factor values. As TR-FRET assays are ratiometric and require no washing steps, they provide much better reproducibility than traditional approaches. Together, this suite of assays provides new cost-effective tools for a more comprehensive analysis of specific phosphorylated STAT proteins following cell treatment and the screening and characterization of specific and selective modulators of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway.

Time-resolved F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer cell-based assay protocols are described for the simple, specific, sensitive, and robust quantification of endogenous phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1/3/4/5/6 proteins in cell lysates in a 384-well format.

The Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in mediating cellular responses to ...

Purification of Endogenous Drosophila Transient Receptor Potential Channels

Drosophila phototransduction is one of the fastest known G protein-coupled signaling pathways. To ensure the specificity and efficiency of this cascade, the calcium (Ca2+)-permeable cation channel, transient receptor potential (TRP), binds tightly to the scaffold protein, inactivation-no-after-potential D (INAD), and forms a large signaling protein complex with eye-specific protein kinase C (ePKC) and phospholipase C&#946;/No receptor potential A (PLC&#946;/NORPA). However, the biochemical properties of the Drosophila TRP channel remain unclear. Based on the assembling mechanism of INAD protein complex, a modified affinity purification plus competition strategy was developed to purify the endogenous TRP channel. First, the purified histidine (His)-tagged NORPA 863-1095 fragment was bound to Ni-beads and used as bait to pull down the endogenous INAD protein complex from Drosophila head homogenates. Then, excessive purified glutathione S-transferase (GST)-tagged TRP 1261-1275 fragment was added to the Ni-beads to compete with the TRP channel. Finally, the TRP channel in the supernatant was separated from the excessive TRP 1261-1275 peptide by size-exclusion chromatography. This method makes it possible to study the gating mechanism of the Drosophila TRP channel from both biochemical and structural angles. The electrophysiology properties of purified Drosophila TRP channels can also be measured in the future.

Purification of Endogenous Drosophila Transient Receptor Potential Channels

Based on the assembling mechanism of the INAD protein complex, in this protocol, a modified affinity purification plus competition strategy was developed to purify the endogenous Drosophila TRP channel.

Drosophila phototransduction is one of the fastest known G protein-coupled signaling pathways. To ensure the specificity and efficiency of this cascade, ...