The authors have nothing to disclose.

layers of symbiosis - visualizing the termite hindgut microbial community

ジャレッドベターは、シロアリの後腸での生活の居住者の多様性を通じて、自然の散歩に私達を取る - 250異なる種を含有する微小環境は、地球上どこにも発見。ジャレッドは、このシステムが示す共生が多層であり、シロアリとその腸内の住民の間だけでなく、関係を含むだけでなく、腸内微生物は、自分達の中の共生の複雑なWebを含むことが明らかになった。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Layers of Symbiosis - Visualizing the Termite Hindgut Microbial Community at JoVE.com

Layers of Symbiosis - Visualizing the Termite Hindgut Microbial Community

共生の層 - シロアリ後腸の微生物コミュニティの可視化

Jared Leadbetter takes us for a nature walk through the diversity of life resident in the termite hindgut - a microenvironment containing 250 different ...

layers-symbiosis-visualizing-termite-hindgut-microbial

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

31.9K ビュー.  California Institute of Technology - Caltech. ジャレッドベターは、シロアリの後腸での生活の居住者の多様性を通じて、自然の散歩に私達を取る - 250異なる種を含有する微小環境は、地球上どこにも発見。ジャレッドは、このシステムが示す共生が多層であり、シロアリとその腸内の住民の間だけでなく、関係を含むだけでなく、腸内微生物は、自分達の中の共生の複雑なWebを含むことが明らかに?...

ビデオ: Layers of Symbiosis - Visualizing the Termite Hindgut Microbial Community

Extracting DNA from the Gut Microbes of the Termite (Zootermopsis Angusticollis) and Visualizing Gut Microbes

Termites are among the few animals known to have the capacity to subsist solely by consuming wood.  The termite gut tract contains a dense and species-rich microbial population that assists in the degradation of lignocellulose predominantly into acetate, the key nutrient fueling termite metabolism (Odelson &amp; Breznak, 1983).  Within these microbial populations are bacteria, methanogenic archaea and, in some ("lower") termites, eukaryotic protozoa. Thus, termites are excellent research subjects for studying the interactions among microbial species and the numerous biochemical functions they perform to the benefit of their host.  The species composition of microbial populations in termite guts as well as key genes involved in various biochemical processes has been explored using molecular techniques (Kudo et al., 1998; Schmit-Wagner et al., 2003; Salmassi &amp; Leadbetter, 2003). These techniques depend on the extraction and purification of high-quality nucleic acids from the termite gut environment.  The extraction technique described in this video is a modified compilation of protocols developed for extraction and purification of nucleic acids from environmental samples (Mor  et al., 1994; Berthelet et al., 1996; Purdy et al., 1996; Salmassi &amp; Leadbetter, 2003; Ottesen et al. 2006) and it produces DNA from termite hindgut material suitable for use as template for polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Extracting DNA from the Gut Microbes of the Termite Zootermopsis Angusticollis and Visualizing Gut Microbes

This video illustrates the technique for extracting DNA from the species of microbes resident in the termite hindgut. The preparation of a wet mount slide, which is useful for visualizing the gut microbial community is also illustrated, and a tour through the species-rich gut environment is given.

シロアリの腸内微生物（Zootermopsis Angusticollis）からDNAを抽出し、腸内微生物の可視化

Termites are among the few animals known to have the capacity to subsist solely by consuming wood.  The termite gut tract contains a dense and ...

生物学

Investigating the Microbial Community in the Termite Hindgut - Interview

Jared Leadbetter explains why the termite-gut microbial community is an excellent system for studying the complex interactions between microbes.     The symbiotic relationship existing between the host insect and lignocellulose-degrading gut microbes is explained, as well as the industrial uses of these microbes for degrading plant biomass and generating biofuels.

Jared Leadbetter explains why the termite-gut microbial community is an excellent system for studying the complex interactions between microbes. The symbiotic relationship existing between the host insect and lignocellulose-degrading gut microbes is explained, as well as the industrial uses of these microbes for degrading plant biomass and generating biofuels.

インタビュー - シロアリ後腸内微生物群集の調査

Jared Leadbetter explains why the termite-gut microbial community is an excellent system for studying the complex interactions between microbes.     The ...

Visualizing the Beating Heart in Drosophila

The Drosophila heart has recently emerged as a good model system for examining the genetic, cellular, and molecular mechanisms underlying function in myogenic hearts. A key step in examining heart function in the fly is finding a way to access the heart in a manner that preserves its myogenic function while still allowing the beating heart organ to be observed and recorded. Two different methods for observing and recording the beating heart in both larva and adult Drosophila are described here. Our semi-intact preparation using adult flies allows clear visualization of the abdominal heart without interference from the pigmented cuticle and overlying fat bodies. To record larval heart beats it is necessary to immobilize the larva, which minimizes body wall movements thereby reducing heart movements that are not associated with myocardial contractions. Our methodologies produce stable adult and larval heart preparations that can beat for hours at rates of 1-3 Hz.

Visualizing the Beating Heart in Drosophila

Technique required for visualizing the beating heart in larval and adult Drosophila are presented. Each life stage requires a different methodology.

の心臓の鼓動の可視化ショウジョウバエ</em

The Drosophila heart has recently emerged as a good model system for examining the genetic, cellular, and molecular mechanisms underlying function in ...

Testing Protozoacidal Activity of Ligand-lytic Peptides Against Termite Gut Protozoa in vitro (Protozoa Culture) and in vivo (Microinjection into Termite Hindgut)

We are developing a novel approach to subterranean termite control that would lead to reduced reliance on the use of chemical pesticides. Subterranean termites are dependent on protozoa in the hindguts of workers to efficiently digest wood. Lytic peptides have been shown to kill a variety of protozoan parasites (Mutwiri et al. 2000) and also protozoa in the gut of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus (Husseneder and Collier 2009). Lytic peptides are part of the nonspecific immune system of eukaryotes, and destroy the membranes of microorganisms (Leuschner and Hansel 2004). Most lytic peptides are not likely to harm higher eukaryotes, because they do not affect the electrically neutral cholesterol-containing cell membranes of higher eukaryotes (Javadpour et al. 1996). Lytic peptide action can be targeted to specific cell types by the addition of a ligand. For example, Hansel et al. (2007) reported that lytic peptides conjugated with cancer cell membrane receptor ligands could be used to destroy breast cancer cells, while lytic peptides alone or conjugated with non-specific peptides were not effective. Lytic peptides also have been conjugated to human hormones that bind to receptors on tumor cells for targeted destruction of prostate and testicular cancer cells (Leuschner and Hansel 2004).
In this article we present techniques used to demonstrate the protozoacidal activity of a lytic peptide (Hecate) coupled to a heptapeptide ligand that binds to the surface membrane of protozoa from the gut of the Formosan subterranean termite. These techniques include extirpation of the gut from termite workers, anaerobic culture of gut protozoa (Pseudotrichonympha grassii, Holomastigotoides hartmanni, Spirotrichonympha leidyi), microscopic confirmation that the ligand marked with a fluorescent dye binds to the termite gut protozoa and other free-living protozoa but not to bacteria or gut tissue. We also demonstrate that the same ligand coupled to a lytic peptide efficiently kills termite gut protozoa in vitro (protozoa culture) and in vivo (microinjection into hindgut of workers), but is less bacteriacidal than the lytic peptide alone. The loss of protozoa leads to the death of the termites in less than two weeks.
In the future, we will genetically engineer microorganisms that can survive in the termite hindgut and spread through a termite colony as "Trojan Horses" to express ligand-lytic peptides that would kill the protozoa in the termite gut and subsequently kill the termites in the colony. Ligand-lytic peptides also could be useful for drug development against protozoan parasites.

Testing Protozoacidal Activity of Ligand-lytic Peptides Against Termite Gut Protozoa in vitro Protozoa Culture and in vivo Microinjection into Termite Hindgut

We present procedures for demonstrating that ligands bind to the surface membrane of the cellulose-digesting protozoa in the gut of Formosan subterranean termites using fluorescent microscopy and that ligands coupled with lytic peptides kill these protozoa in vitro (anaerobic protozoa culture) and in vivo (injection into the termite hindgut).

原虫シロアリ腸に対するリガンド - 溶解性ペプチドのProtozoacidal活性を試験する in vitroで（原生動物文化）と in vivoで（シロアリ後腸へのマイクロインジェクション）

We are developing a novel approach to subterranean termite control that would lead to reduced reliance on the use of chemical pesticides. Subterranean ...

Measuring Fast Calcium Fluxes in Cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca2+ fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function 1,2. Changes in Ca2+ activity in response to extracellular agents is predominantly regulated by the phospholipase C&beta;- G&alpha;q pathway localized on the plasma membrane which is stimulated by agents such as acetylcholine 3,4. We have recently found that plasma membrane protein domains called caveolae5,6 can entrap activated G&alpha;q 7. This entrapment has the effect of stabilizing the activated state of G&alpha;q and resulting in prolonged Ca2+ signals in cardiomyocytes and other cell types8. We uncovered this surprising result by measuring dynamic calcium responses on a fast scale in living cardiomyocytes. Briefly, cells are loaded with a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator. In our studies, we used Ca2+ Green (Invitrogen, Inc.) which exhibits an increase in fluorescence emission intensity upon binding of calcium ions. The fluorescence intensity is then recorded for using a line-scan mode of a laser scanning confocal microscope. This method allows rapid acquisition of the time course of fluorescence intensity in pixels along a selected line, producing several hundreds of time traces on the microsecond time scale. These very fast traces are transferred into excel and then into Sigmaplot for analysis, and are compared to traces obtained for electronic noise, free dye, and other controls. To dissect Ca2+ responses of different flux rates, we performed a histogram analysis that binned pixel intensities with time. Binning allows us to group over 500 traces of scans and visualize the compiled results spatially and temporally on a single plot. Thus, the slow Ca2+ waves that are difficult to discern when the scans are overlaid due to different peak placement and noise, can be readily seen in the binned histograms. Very fast fluxes in the time scale of the measurement show a narrow distribution of intensities in the very short time bins whereas longer Ca2+ waves show binned data with a broad distribution over longer time bins. These different time distributions allow us to dissect the timing of Ca2+fluxes in the cells, and to determine their impact on various cellular events.

We present a method to isolate rapid (microsecond) calcium events from slower fluxes in living cells using laser scanning confocal microscopy. The method measures fluorescence intensity fluctuations of calcium indicators by recording line scans of several hundred pixels in a cell. Histogram analysis allows us to isolate the time scales of different calcium fluxes.

心筋細胞における高速カルシウムフラックスの測定

Cardiomyocytes have multiple Ca2+ fluxes of varying duration that work together to optimize function 1,2. Changes in Ca2+ activity in response to ...

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems including plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. There are various methods to achieve RNAi in vivo4,5. For example, the target gene may be transformed into an RNAi vector, and then either permanently or transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to achieve gene knockdown effects; alternatively synthesized double-strand oligonucleotides from specific target genes (RNAi oligos) may be transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to silence target genes; or synthesized double-strand RNA molecules may be microinjected into an organism. Since the nematode C. elegans uses bacteria as a food source, feeding the animals with bacteria expressing double-strand RNA against target genes provides a viable strategy6. Here we present an RNAi feeding method to score body size phenotype. Body size in C. elegans is regulated primarily by the TGF- &beta; - like ligand DBL-1, so this assay is appropriate for identification of TGF-&beta; signaling components7. We used different strains including two RNAi hypersensitive strains to repeat the RNAi feeding experiments. Our results showed that rrf-3 strain gave us the best expected RNAi phenotype. The method is easy to perform, reproducible, and easily quantified. Furthermore, our protocol minimizes the use of specialized equipment, so it is suitable for smaller laboratories or those at predominantly undergraduate institutions.

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

We demonstrate how to use the RNAi feeding technique to knock down target genes and score body size phenotype in C. elegans. This method could be used for a large scale screen to identify potential genetic components of interest, such as those involved in body size regulation by DBL-1/TGF-&beta; signaling.

線虫における身体サイズ調節に関与する遺伝子をスクリーニングするための戦略を給餌RNA媒介干渉を用いた<em&gt; Cエレガンス</em

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems ...

The Use of Chemostats in Microbial Systems Biology

Cells regulate their rate of growth in response to signals from the external world. As the cell grows, diverse cellular processes must be coordinated including macromolecular synthesis, metabolism and ultimately, commitment to the cell division cycle. The chemostat, a method of experimentally controlling cell growth rate, provides a powerful means of systematically studying how growth rate impacts cellular processes - including gene expression and metabolism - and the regulatory networks that control the rate of cell growth. When maintained for hundreds of generations chemostats can be used to study adaptive evolution of microbes in environmental conditions that limit cell growth. We describe the principle of chemostat cultures, demonstrate their operation and provide examples of their various applications. Following a period of disuse after their introduction in the middle of the twentieth century, the convergence of genome-scale methodologies with a renewed interest in the regulation of cell growth and the molecular basis of adaptive evolution is stimulating a renaissance in the use of chemostats in biological research.

Cell growth rate is a regulated process and a primary determinant of cell physiology. Continuous culturing using chemostats enables extrinsic control of cell growth rate by nutrient limitation facilitating the study of molecular networks that control cell growth and how those networks evolve to optimize cell growth.

微生物システム生物学のケモスタットの使用

Cells regulate their rate of growth in response to signals from the external world. As the cell grows, diverse cellular processes must be coordinated ...

Visualizing the Early Stages of Phagocytosis

The mammalian body is equipped with various layers of mechanisms that help to defend itself from pathogen invasions. Professional phagocytes of the immune system &#8212; such as neutrophils, dendritic cells, and macrophages &#8212; retain the innate ability to detect and clear such invading pathogens through phagocytosis1. Phagocytosis involves choreographed events of membrane reorganization and actin remodeling at the cell surface2,3. Phagocytes successfully internalize and eradicate foreign molecules only when all stages of phagocytosis are fulfilled. These steps include recognition and binding of the pathogen by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) residing at the cell surface, formation of phagocytic cup through actin-enriched membranous protrusions (pseudopods) to surround the particulate, and scission of the phagosome followed by phagolysosome maturation that results in the killing of the pathogen3,4.
Imaging and quantification of various stages of phagocytosis is instrumental for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of this cellular process. The present manuscript reports methods to study the different phases of phagocytosis. We describe a microscope-based approach to visualize and quantify the binding, phagocytic cup formation, and the internalization of particulate by phagocytes. As phagocytosis occurs when innate receptors on phagocytic cells encounter ligands on a target particle bigger than 0.5 &#181;m, the assays we present here comprise the use of pathogenic fungi Candida albicans and other particulates such as zymosan and IgG-coated beads.

Here we describe a microscope-based technique to visualize and quantify the early cascades of events during phagocytosis of pathogens such as the fungi Candida albicans and particulates that are larger than 0.5 &#181;m including zymosan and IgG-coated beads.

食作用の初期段階の可視化

The mammalian body is equipped with various layers of mechanisms that help to defend itself from pathogen invasions. Professional phagocytes of the immune ...

Visualizing Stromule Frequency with Fluorescence Microscopy

Stromules, or "stroma-filled tubules", are narrow, tubular extensions from the surface of the chloroplast that are universally observed in plant cells but whose functions remain mysterious. Alongside growing attention on the role of chloroplasts in coordinating plant responses to stress, interest in stromules and their relationship to chloroplast signaling dynamics has increased in recent years, aided by advances in fluorescence microscopy and protein fluorophores that allow for rapid, accurate visualization of stromule dynamics. Here, we provide detailed protocols to assay stromule frequency in the epidermal chloroplasts of Nicotiana benthamiana, an excellent model system for investigating chloroplast stromule biology. We also provide methods for visualizing chloroplast stromules in vitro by extracting chloroplasts from leaves. Finally, we outline sampling strategies and statistical approaches to analyze differences in stromule frequencies in response to stimuli, such as environmental stress, chemical treatments, or gene silencing. Researchers can use these protocols as a starting point to develop new methods for innovative experiments to explore how and why chloroplasts make stromules.

Protocols to investigate the dynamics of chloroplast stromules, the stroma-filled tubules that extend from the surface of chloroplasts, are described.

蛍光顕微鏡でストロミュール頻度を可視化

Stromules, or "stroma-filled tubules", are narrow, tubular extensions from the surface of the chloroplast that are universally observed in plant cells but ...

Visualizing the Interaction Between the Qdot-labeled Protein and Site-specifically Modified &#955; DNA at the Single Molecule Level

The fluorescence microscopy&#160;has made great contributions in dissecting the mechanisms of complex biological processes at the single molecule level. In single molecule assays for studying DNA-protein interactions, there are two important factors for consideration: the DNA substrate with enough length for easy observation and labeling a protein with a suitable fluorescent probe. 48.5 kb &#955; DNA is a good candidate for the DNA substrate. Quantum dots (Qdots), as a class of fluorescent probes, allow long-time observation (minutes to hours) and high-quality image acquisition. In this paper, we present a protocol to study DNA-protein interactions at the single-molecule level, which includes preparing a site-specifically modified &#955; DNA and labeling a target protein with streptavidin-coated Qdots. For a proof of concept, we choose ORC (origin recognition complex) in budding yeast as a protein of interest and visualize its interaction with an ARS (autonomously replicating sequence) using TIRFM. Compared with other fluorescent probes, Qdots have obvious advantages in single molecule studies due to its high stability against photobleaching, but it should be noted that this property limits its application in quantitative assays.

Visualizing the Interaction Between the Qdot-labeled Protein and Site-specifically Modified &amp;#955; DNA at the Single Molecule Level

Here, we present a protocol to study DNA-protein interactions by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) using a site-specifically modified &#955; DNA substrate and a Quantum-dot labeled protein.

した Qdot 標識タンパク質と Site-specifically 変更された λ DNA の単一分子レベルでの相互作用の可視化

The fluorescence microscopy&#160;has made great contributions in dissecting the mechanisms of complex biological processes at the single molecule level. ...