This work was supported by the Israel Science Foundation, grant # 281/14.

1. Test Section for Measurements of Instantaneous Temperature
<ol>
	<li>Manufacturing process of test section (Figure 2)
	<ol>
		<li>Cut a segment of a pipe at least 70 cm long. 
		Note: The diameter and wall thickness of the test section should be identical to that of the pipe used in the experimental facility.</li>
		<li>Use a milling machine to cut 4 adjacent narrow windows along the pipe in the test section, each window is 6 mm wi...

<ol>
	<li>Hetsroni, G., Rozenblit, R., Yarin, L. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+hot-foil+infrared+technique+for+studying+the+temperature+field+of+a+wall.">A hot-foil infrared technique for studying the temperature field of a wall.</a> Meas. Sci. Tech. 7, 1418 (1996).</li><li>Babin, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Experimental investigation of the local heat transfer in gas-liquid slug flow. , (2015).</li><li>Babin, V., Shemer, L., Barnea, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Local+instantaneous+heat+transfer+around+a+raising+single+Taylor+bubble.">Local instantaneous heat transfer around a raising single Taylor bubble.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 89 (9), 884-893 (2015).</li><li>Fershtman, A., Shemer, L., Barnea, <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Instantaneous+heat+transfer+rate+around+consecutive+Taylor+bubbles.">Instantaneous heat transfer rate around consecutive Taylor bubbles.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 95, 865-873 (2016).</li><li>Fershtman, A., Shemer, L., Barnea, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transient+convective+heat+transfer+in+a+pipe+due+to+impulsively+initiated+downward+flow+and/or+heat+flux.">Transient convective heat transfer in a pipe due to impulsively initiated downward flow and/or heat flux.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 111, 1181-1191 (2017).</li><li>Hetsroni, G., Hu, B. G., Yi, B. G., Mosyak, A., Yarin, L. P., Ziskind, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+Transfer+in+Intermittent+Air-Water+Flow-Part+I:+Horizontal+Tube.">Heat Transfer in Intermittent Air-Water Flow-Part I: Horizontal Tube.</a> Int. J. Multiphase Flow. 24, 165 (1998).</li><li>Hetsroni, G., Hu, B. G., Yi, B. G., Mosyak, A., Yarin, L. P., Ziskind, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+Transfer+in+Intermittent+Air-Water+Flow-Part+II:+Upward+Inclined+Tube.">Heat Transfer in Intermittent Air-Water Flow-Part II: Upward Inclined Tube.</a> Int. J. Multiphase Flow. 24, 188 (1998).</li><li>Hetsroni, G., Mewes, D., Enke, C., Gurevich, M., Mosyak, A., Rozenblit, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+transfer+to+two-phase+flow+in+inclined+tubes.">Heat transfer to two-phase flow in inclined tubes.</a> Int. J. Multiphase Flow. 29, 173-194 (2003).</li><li>Ghajar, A. J., Tang, C. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heat+Transfer+Measurements,+Flow+pattern+maps+and+flow+visualization+for+non-boiling+two-phase+flow+in+horizontal+and+slightly+inclined+pipe.">Heat Transfer Measurements, Flow pattern maps and flow visualization for non-boiling two-phase flow in horizontal and slightly inclined pipe.</a> Heat Transfer Eng. 28, 525 (2007).</li><li>Franca, F. A., Banneart, A. C., Camargo, R. M. T., Goncalves, M. A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanistic+modelling+of+the+convective+heat+transfer+coefficient+in+gas-liquid+intermittent+flows.">Mechanistic modelling of the convective heat transfer coefficient in gas-liquid intermittent flows.</a> Heat Transfer Eng. 29, 984-998 (2008).</li><li>Kim, D., Ghajar, A. J., Dougherty, R. L., Ryali, V. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+20+two+phase+heat+transfer+correlations+with+seven+Sets+of+experimental+data,+including+flow+pattern+and+tube+inclination+effects.">Comparison of 20 two phase heat transfer correlations with seven Sets of experimental data, including flow pattern and tube inclination effects.</a> Heat Transfer Eng. 20, 15 (1999).</li><li>Nicklin, D. J., Wilkes, J. O., Davidson, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-phase+flow+in+vertical+tubes.">Two-phase flow in vertical tubes.</a> Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 40, 61 (1962).</li><li>Donnelly, B., O'Reilly Meehan, R., Nolan, K., Murray, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dynamics+of+sliding+air+bubbles+and+the+effects+on+surface+heat+transfer.">The dynamics of sliding air bubbles and the effects on surface heat transfer.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 91, 532-542 (2015).</li><li>Liu, T., Pan, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infrared+thermography+measurement+of+two-phase+boiling+flow+heat+transfer+in+a+microchannel.">Infrared thermography measurement of two-phase boiling flow heat transfer in a microchannel.</a> Applied thermal engineering. 94, 568-578 (2016).</li><li>Dumitrescu, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stromung+an+einer+Luftblase+im+senkrechten+Rohr.">Stromung an einer Luftblase im senkrechten Rohr.</a> Z. Ang. Math. Mech. 23, 139 (1943).</li><li>Davies, R. M., Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanics+of+large+bubbles+rising+through+extended+liquids+and+trough+liquid+in+tubes.">The mechanics of large bubbles rising through extended liquids and trough liquid in tubes.</a> Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A. 200, 375 (1949).</li></ol>

Experimental investigation of local heat transfer in transient pipe flow is a complicated task that requires high-end measuring instruments and methods, as well as a custom-built experimental facility, in particular, a specially designed test section. The present protocol displays a thermography technique that is capable of faithfully measuring fast temporal changes in wall temperature and in heat transfer rate due to variations in flow hydrodynamics.
A detailed description of the manufacturin...

Numerous experimental studies of convective heat transfer, using different techniques to measure the wall and/or fluid temperature in a variety of flow configurations, have been performed during the last decades. One of the factors that limits the accuracy of temperature measurements in unsteady processes is the slow response of the sensors. To record local instantaneous wall temperature, the measuring equipment has to respond fast enough, while the surface at which the temperature is recorded has to be in thermal equilibrium with the time-dependent flow. Thus, the thermal inertia of the surface has to be sufficiently small. The relevant time scales are determined by the hydrodynamic phenomena that cause the change in the convective heat transfer. Fast time response is thus crucial for recording the time-dependent temperature in transient flow.
To meet these requirements, an IR camera is used to record a special self-manufactured test section that allows a fast temperature response to any change in the flow. A part of the pipe wall is cut off and replaced with a thin stainless-steel foil. A similar approach was used by Hetsroni et al.1, however, the foil they used was too thick to accurately measure changes of instantaneous temperatures and only time-averaged temperatures were presented. Decreasing the foil thickness improved the time response considerably.2 This method was applied in the lab to measure convective heat transfer coefficients in two-phase flow3,4 and transient phenomena in single phase pipe flow5.
A schematic layout of the two-phase flow facility is given in Figure 1, additional information on the unique air inlet device can be found in Babin et al.3
Investigation of convective heat transfer in two-phase flow is very complex due to the transient flow behavior and the effect of void fraction in the pipe cross-section. Therefore, many studies have only presented an average convective heat transfer coefficient for a given flow regime as a function of specific flow conditions6,7,8,9,10,11. However, the papers by Donnelly et al.12 and Liu et al.13 represent examples of two-phase local convective heat transfer studies.
The present study deals with heat transfer measurements around a single elongated (Taylor) bubble injected into stagnant or flowing liquid in a pipe. The Taylor bubble propagates in a constant translational velocity14,15,16. The bubble propagation velocity is determined using optical probes method consisting of a laser light source and photodiode3,4.
The combination of the IR camera and of the optical probes allows measurements of the local instantaneous convective heat transfer as a function of the distance from either the Taylor bubble top or bottom.
The instantaneous wall temperature can be used to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, and the Nusselt number:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/57437/57437eq1.jpg" />,&#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; &#160; (1)
where q is the heat flux to the foil, Tw and T&#8734; are the wall temperature and the inlet water temperature respectively, k is the liquid conductivity and D is the pipe diameter. The bulk temperature which is commonly used to determine the heat transfer coefficients was not measured in order to avoid introducing any interference to the flow.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Infra red camera</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Optris</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PI-1450</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Thermocouples A/D card&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">National Instruments</td>
			<td>NI cDAQ-9714.</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Labview program</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">National Instruments</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Epoxy DP-460</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">3M Scotch-weld</td>
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measurements of local instantaneous convective heat transfer in a pipe - single and two-phase flow

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer coefficient as a function of the liquid flow rate in a transparent pipe. With certain amendments, the approach is extended to gas-liquid flows, with a particular emphasis on the effect of a single elongated (Taylor) air bubble on heat transfer enhancement. A non-invasive thermography technique is applied to measure the instantaneous temperature of a thin metal foil heated electrically. The foil is glued to cover a narrow slot cut in the pipe. The thermal inertia of the foil is small enough to detect the variation in the instantaneous foil temperature. The test section can be moved along the pipe and is long enough to cover a considerable part of the growing thermal boundary layer.
At the beginning of each experimental run, a steady state with a constant water flow rate and heat flux to the foil is attained and serves as the reference. The Taylor bubble is then injected into the pipe. The heat transfer coefficient variations due to the passage of a Taylor bubble propagating in a vertical pipe is measured as function of the distance of the measuring point from the bottom of the moving Taylor bubble. Thus, the results represent the local heat transfer coefficients. Multiple independent runs preformed under identical conditions allow accumulating sufficient data to calculate reliable ensemble-averaged results on the transient convective heat transfer. In order to perform this in a frame of reference moving with the bubble, the location of the bubble along the pipe has to be known at all times. Detailed description of measurements of the length and of the translational velocity of the Taylor bubbles by optical probes is presented.

An example of the optical sensors output records is presented in Figure 4 for a single Taylor bubble rising in a vertical pipe filled with stagnant water. The initial large drop represents the opening of the circuit due to the Taylor bubble tip, while the later much shorter drops following the rise to the initial value due to the passage of the elongated bubbles tail, represent the dispersed bubbles in the liquid wake behind the Taylor bubble. The time shift ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow at JoVE.com

Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow

This manuscript describes methods aimed at measuring the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients in a single or two-phase pipe flow. A simple optical method to determine the length and the propagation velocity of an elongated (Taylor) air bubble moving at a constant velocity is also presented.

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer ...

The overall goal of this experimental procedure is to present a thermography technique, that utilizes a well designed test section to accurately measure the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients, in a single or two phase pipe flow. This method can help answer key outstanding questions in transient convective heat transfer, in single and multi phase flows. The main advantage of this technique, is that it's non invasive and can measure fast variations in wall temperature, resulting from time dependent flows.Demonstrating this procedure will be Avram Balas, and Yakov Levi, technicians from our laboratory. Begin with a segment of pipe 70 centimeters long or more. It's diameter and wall thickness, should match the pipe of the experimental facility.Mill four adjacent narrow windows along the pipe. Each window is six millimeters wide and 80 millimeters long. The gap between windows is 25 millimeters.Next get 12 micrometer thin stainless steel foil, and cut a long thin strip. To help weld the heating wires the strip is coated with gold near each end of the strip. Continue by measuring the foil's electrical resistance with an ometer.Now obtain a rigid tube that fits into the pipe. The tubes outer diameter should equal the inner diameter of the pipe. Cut out a long segment of the rigid tube to create an arch.This long arch, the basis, fits into the pipe, and will support and protect the foil. To put the foil in the test section, coat the basis with grease to aid in detaching the foil later. Then place the foil on the basis, to transfer to the test section.Flatten the foil and use a cloth and alcohol to clean excess grease. Next, apply adhesive on the foil periphery, so it will adhere to the pipe. In addition, identify regions corresponding to the bridges between windows on the pipe and apply adhesive to them.When ready orient the basis, so the foil faces the same direction as the test section windows. Then carefully insert the basis into the test section. Ensure the foil is aligned with the windows.Check that each gold stripe is at an edge of an outer window. Once the foil is in place, clamp the basis to each end of the pipe. Next obtain a bicycle inner tube, folded to fit into the pipe.Carefully insert the tube into the pipe under the basis. When done, inflate the tire. As the tire inflates, observe the adhesive spreading across the foil and reaching the basis.Use a cloth to clear any excess adhesive in the window openings. After 24 hours of drying deflate the tire and extract it. Open the clamps holding the basis and pipe together.Test each end of the basis to decide which side is easier to disconnect. Then use a long roller and start on the easier end. Place the roller between the basis and the pipe, and move it slowly into the pipe, until the entire basis is separated.The foil should remain undamaged on the pipe interior. As a test of the seal, close one end of the pipe. Then fill the pipe with water and check for leaks.Continue after unblocking the pipe and cleaning its interior. Connect electrical heating wires to the golden strips on the foil. Also connect T-Type thermocouples to the bottom of each window.Finally, spray paint the outer side of the foil with a black matt. Now put the test section in the experimental facility. Connect the pipes with flanges.Before continuing, fill the system with water. Move on to set up a computer for control and data acquisition. Then connect the heating wires from the foil, to a DC power supply.Next, place a computer controlled infra red camera at a window of the test section. For calibration, place it a few centimeters from the test section surface. Measure the ambient temperature, with a thermocouple held near the experiment.Next, focus the camera on a window of the test section to measure its temperature. Adjust the emissivity of the IR camera, so the camera and the temperature measured by the thermocouple on the pipe window match. With the camera set up, prepare the optical probes.Each probe consists of a laser and a photodiode, that is to be connected to the data acquisition computer. Turn the laser on and point the beam at the diode. Check that the computer records a positive signal.Place an optical probe along the test pipe, that is now filled with water. The final set up is represented in this schematic. The measurement section is in addition to the regular setup.The computer, in addition to data acquisition from the camera, thermocouples and optical probes, governs the synchronization of bubble injection and wall temperature measurement with the camera. Now establish the desired conditions for the experiment, and perform a single phase pipe flow reference measurement. After that inject a Taylor bubble in the setup, for a two phased flow measurement.This is an example of the optical sensor output, for a single Taylor bubble rising in a vertical pipe filled with stagnant water. The initial drop represents the sensor circuit opening due to the Taylor bubble tip. The rise represents the bubble's passing.Later shorter drops represent bubbles in the liquid wake behind the Taylor bubble. The delay of the features in the bottom curve, is due to the sensors being in different positions. This plot represents the ensemble average results of the local convective heat transfer coefficient, due to the passage of a single Taylor bubble rising in stagnant water in a vertical pipe.The two phase flow convective coefficient results are normalized by the single phase flow coefficient. The distance from the bubble tail moving, in a frame of reference with the Taylor bubble is normalized by the pipe diameter. This video presented measurements of the local instantaneous heat transference and slug flow.The method can provide information on heat transfer and study stage single phase flow, as well as more complex two phase flows. Once mastered, the manufacturing of the test pipe can be done in a few hours. While attempting this procedure on transient flow, its important to remember to automate thew entire process, to insure repeated results which can later be used for an assembling averaging process.After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to manufacture a heat transfer test pipe, which allows a quantitative investigation of convective heat transfer in pipe flows. Don't forget that this technique of convective heat transfer measurement, can be expanded to many flow configurations, using supplementary equipment as optical prompts and high speed cameras.

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7.0K ビュー.  Tel-Aviv University. The overall goal of this experimental procedure is to present a thermography technique, that utilizes a well designed test section to accurately measure the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients, in a single or two phase pipe flow. This method can help answer key outstanding questions in transient convective heat transfer, in single and multi phase flows. The main advantage of this technique, is that it's non invasive and can measure fast variations in wall temperature, re...

ビデオ: Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow

Analysis of Contact Interfaces for Single GaN Nanowire Devices

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit a strong degradation after annealing due to the occurrence of void formation at the contact/SiO2 interface. This void formation can cause cracking and delamination of the metal film, which can increase the resistance or lead to a complete failure of the NW device. In order to address issues associated with void formation, a technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from the substrates to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN NW devices. This procedure determines the degree of adhesion of the contact films to the substrate and NWs and allows for the characterization of the morphology and composition of the contact interface with the substrate and nanowires. This technique is also useful for assessing the amount of residual contamination that remains from the NW suspension and from photolithographic processes on the NW-SiO2 surface prior to metal deposition. The detailed steps of this procedure are presented for the removal of annealed Ni/Au contacts to Mg-doped GaN NWs on a SiO2 substrate.

A technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from their substrate to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN nanowire devices.

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit  a strong degradation after annealing due to the  occurrence of void formation at the ...

Proton Transfer and Protein Conformation Dynamics in Photosensitive Proteins by Time-resolved Step-scan Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Monitoring the dynamics of protonation and protein backbone conformation changes during the function of a protein is an essential step towards understanding its mechanism. Protonation and conformational changes affect the vibration pattern of amino acid side chains and of the peptide bond, respectively, both of which can be probed by infrared (IR) difference spectroscopy. For proteins whose function can be repetitively and reproducibly triggered by light, it is possible to obtain infrared difference spectra with (sub)microsecond resolution over a broad spectral range using the step-scan Fourier transform infrared technique. With ~102-103 repetitions of the photoreaction, the minimum number to complete a scan at reasonable spectral resolution and bandwidth, the noise level in the absorption difference spectra can be as low as ~10-4, sufficient to follow the kinetics of protonation changes from a single amino acid. Lower noise levels can be accomplished by more data averaging and/or mathematical processing. The amount of protein required for optimal results is between 5-100 &#181;g, depending on the sampling technique used. Regarding additional requirements, the protein needs to be first concentrated in a low ionic strength buffer and then dried to form a film. The protein film is hydrated prior to the experiment, either with little droplets of water or under controlled atmospheric humidity. The attained hydration level (g of water / g of protein) is gauged from an IR absorption spectrum. To showcase the technique, we studied the photocycle of the light-driven proton-pump bacteriorhodopsin in its native purple membrane environment, and of the light-gated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 solubilized in detergent.

Key steps of protein function, in particular backbone conformational changes and proton transfer reactions, often take place in the microsecond to millisecond time scale. These dynamical processes can be studied by time-resolved step-scan Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, in particular for proteins whose function is triggered by light.

Monitoring the dynamics of protonation and protein backbone conformation changes during the function of a protein is an essential step towards ...

Laser-induced Forward Transfer for Flip-chip Packaging of Single Dies

Flip-chip (FC) packaging is a key technology for realizing high performance, ultra-miniaturized and high-density circuits in the micro-electronics industry. In this technique the chip and/or the substrate is bumped and the two are bonded via these conductive bumps. Many bumping techniques have been developed and intensively investigated since the introduction of the FC technology in 19601 such as stencil printing, stud bumping, evaporation and electroless/electroplating2. Despite the progress that these methods have made they all suffer from one or more than one drawbacks that need to be addressed such as cost, complex processing steps, high processing temperatures, manufacturing time and most importantly the lack of flexibility. In this paper, we demonstrate a simple and cost-effective laser-based bump forming technique known as Laser-induced Forward Transfer (LIFT)3. Using the LIFT technique a wide range of bump materials can be printed in a single-step with great flexibility, high speed and accuracy at RT. In addition, LIFT enables the bumping and bonding down to chip-scale, which is critical for fabricating ultra-miniature circuitry.

We demonstrate the use of the Laser-induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) technique for flip-chip assembly of optoelectronic components. This approach provides a simple, cost-effective, low-temperature, fast and flexible solution for fine-pitch bumping and bonding on chip-scale for achieving high-density circuits for optoelectronic applications.

Flip-chip (FC) packaging is a key technology for realizing high performance, ultra-miniaturized and high-density circuits in the micro-electronics ...

Speciation and Bioavailability Measurements of Environmental Plutonium Using Diffusion in Thin Films

The biological uptake of plutonium (Pu) in aquatic ecosystems is of particular concern since it is an alpha-particle emitter with long half-life which can potentially contribute to the exposure of biota and humans. The diffusive gradients in thin films technique is introduced here for in-situ measurements of Pu bioavailability and speciation. A diffusion cell constructed for laboratory experiments with Pu and the newly developed protocol make it possible to simulate the environmental behavior of Pu in model solutions of various chemical compositions. Adjustment of the oxidation states to Pu(IV) and Pu(V) described in this protocol is essential in order to investigate the complex redox chemistry of plutonium in the environment. The calibration of this technique and the results obtained in the laboratory experiments enable to develop a specific DGT device for in-situ Pu measurements in freshwaters. Accelerator-based mass-spectrometry measurements of Pu accumulated by DGTs in a karst spring allowed determining the bioavailability of Pu in a mineral freshwater environment. Application of this protocol for Pu measurements using DGT devices has a large potential to improve our understanding of the speciation and the biological transfer of Pu in aquatic ecosystems.

The technique of diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) is proposed for speciation studies of plutonium. This protocol describes diffusion experiments probing the behavior of Pu(IV) and Pu(V) in presence of organic matter. DGTs deployed in a karstic spring allow assessment of the bioavailability of Pu.

The biological uptake of plutonium (Pu) in aquatic ecosystems is of particular concern since it is an alpha-particle emitter with long half-life which can ...

Automation of Mode Locking in a Nonlinear Polarization Rotation Fiber Laser through Output Polarization Measurements

When a laser is mode-locked, it emits a train of ultra-short pulses at a repetition rate determined by the laser cavity length. This article outlines a new and inexpensive procedure to force mode locking in a pre-adjusted nonlinear polarization rotation fiber laser. This procedure is based on the detection of a sudden change in the output polarization state when mode locking occurs. This change is used to command the alignment of the intra-cavity polarization controller in order to find mode-locking conditions. More specifically, the value of the first Stokes parameter varies when the angle of the polarization controller is swept and, moreover, it undergoes an abrupt variation when the laser enters the mode-locked state. Monitoring this abrupt variation provides a practical easy-to-detect signal that can be used to command the alignment of the polarization controller and drive the laser towards mode locking. This monitoring is achieved by feeding a small portion of the signal to a polarization analyzer measuring the first Stokes parameter. A sudden change in the read out of this parameter from the analyzer will occur when the laser enters the mode-locked state. At this moment, the required angle of the polarization controller is kept fixed. The alignment is completed. This procedure provides an alternate way to existing automating procedures that use equipment such as an optical spectrum analyzer, an RF spectrum analyzer, a photodiode connected to an electronic pulse-counter or a nonlinear detecting scheme based on two-photon absorption or second harmonic generation. It is suitable for lasers mode locked by nonlinear polarization rotation. It is relatively easy to implement, it requires inexpensive means, especially at a wavelength of 1550 nm, and it lowers the production and operation costs incurred in comparison to the above-mentioned techniques.

A protocol to detect and automate mode locking in a pre-adjusted nonlinear polarization rotation fiber laser is presented. The detection of a sudden change in the output polarization state when mode locking occurs is used to command the alignment of an intra-cavity polarization controller in order to find mode-locking conditions.

When a laser is mode-locked, it emits a train of ultra-short pulses at a repetition rate determined by the laser cavity length. This article outlines a ...

Experimental Methodology for Estimation of Local Heat Fluxes and Burning Rates in Steady Laminar Boundary Layer Diffusion Flames

Modeling the realistic burning behavior of condensed-phase fuels has remained out of reach, in part because of an inability to resolve the complex interactions occurring at the interface between gas-phase flames and condensed-phase fuels. The current research provides a technique to explore the dynamic relationship between a combustible condensed fuel surface and gas-phase flames in laminar boundary layers. Experiments have previously been conducted in both forced and free convective environments over both solid and liquid fuels. A unique methodology, based on the Reynolds Analogy, was used to estimate local mass burning rates and flame heat fluxes for these laminar boundary layer diffusion flames utilizing local temperature gradients at the fuel surface. Local mass burning rates and convective and radiative heat feedback from the flames were measured in both the pyrolysis and plume regions by using temperature gradients mapped near the wall by a two-axis traverse system. These experiments are time-consuming and can be challenging to design as the condensed fuel surface burns steadily for only a limited period of time following ignition. The temperature profiles near the fuel surface need to be mapped during steady burning of a condensed fuel surface at a very high spatial resolution in order to capture reasonable estimates of local temperature gradients. Careful corrections for radiative heat losses from the thermocouples are also essential for accurate measurements. For these reasons, the whole experimental setup needs to be automated with a computer-controlled traverse mechanism, eliminating most errors due to positioning of a micro-thermocouple. An outline of steps to reproducibly capture near-wall temperature gradients and use them to assess local burning rates and heat fluxes is provided.

We describe the use of micro-thermocouples to estimate local temperature gradients in steady laminar boundary layer diffusion flames. By extension of the Reynolds Analogy, local temperature gradients can be further used to estimate the local mass burning rates and heat fluxes in such flames with high accuracy.

Modeling the realistic burning behavior of condensed-phase fuels has remained out of reach, in part because of an inability to resolve the complex ...

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed that, under the proper conditions, ice can be produced when water is introduced to a bath of cold brine. To make ice form, in addition to having the brine and water mix, the rate of heat transfer must bypass that of mass transfer. When water is introduced in the form of tiny droplets to the brine surface, the mode of heat and mass transfer is by diffusion. The buoyancy stops water from mixing with the brine underneath, but as the ice grows thicker, it slows down the rate of heat transfer, making ice more difficult to grow as a result. When water is introduced inside the brine in the form of a flow, a number of factors are found to influence how much ice can form. Brine temperature and concentration, which are the driving forces of heat and mass transfer, respectively, can affect the water-to-ice conversion ratio; lower bath temperatures and brine concentrations encourage more ice to form. The flow rheology, which can directly affect both the heat and mass transfer coefficients, is also a key factor. In addition, the flow rheology changes the area of contact of the flow with the bulk fluid.

Here, we present a protocol to demonstrate the generation of ice when water is introduced to a cold bath of brine, as a secondary refrigerant, at a range of temperatures well below the freezing point of water. It can be used as an alternative way of producing ice for industry.

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed ...

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern. Hybrid wettable patterns were produced by coating superhydrophilic SiO2 on a masked, hydrophobic, cylindrical copper surface. Using de-ionized (DI) water as the working fluid, pool-boiling heat-transfer studies were conducted on the different surface-treated copper cylinders of a 25-mm diameter and a 40-mm length. The experimental results showed that the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern influenced the wall superheat and the HTC. By increasing the number of interlines, the HTC was enhanced when compared to the plain surface. Images obtained from the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera indicated that more bubbles formed on the interlines as compared to other parts. The hybrid wettable pattern with the lowermost section being hydrophobic gave the best heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The experimental results indicated that the bubble dynamics of the surface is an important factor that determines the nucleate boiling.

Pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were carried out to observe the effects of hybrid wettable patterns on the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The parameters of investigation are the number of interlines and the pattern orientation of the modified wettable surface.

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the ...

Measurements of Soil Carbon by Neutron-Gamma Analysis in Static and Scanning Modes

The herein described application of the inelastic neutron scattering (INS) method for soil carbon analysis is based on the registration and analysis of gamma rays created when neutrons interact with soil elements. The main parts of the INS system are a pulsed neutron generator, NaI(Tl) gamma detectors, split electronics to separate gamma spectra due to INS and thermo-neutron capture (TNC) processes, and software for gamma spectra acquisition and data processing. This method has several advantages over other methods in that it is a non-destructive in situ method that measures the average carbon content in large soil volumes, is negligibly impacted by local sharp changes in soil carbon, and can be used in stationary or scanning modes. The result of the INS method is the carbon content from a site with a footprint of ~2.5 - 3 m2 in the stationary regime, or the average carbon content of the traversed area in the scanning regime. The measurement range of the current INS system is &#62;1.5 carbon weight % (standard deviation &#177; 0.3 w%) in the upper 10 cm soil layer for a 1 hmeasurement.

Here, we present the protocol for in situ measurement of soil carbon using the neutron-gamma technique for single point measurements (static mode) or field averages (scanning mode). We also describe system construction and elaborate data treatment procedures.

The herein described application of the inelastic neutron scattering (INS) method for soil carbon analysis is based on the registration and analysis of ...

Measurements of Waves in a Wind-wave Tank Under Steady and Time-varying Wind Forcing

This manuscript describes an experimental procedure that allows obtaining diverse quantitative information on temporal and spatial evolution of water waves excited by time-dependent and steady wind forcing. Capacitance-type wave gauge and Laser Slope Gauge (LSG) are used to measure instantaneous water surface elevation and two components of the instantaneous surface slope at a number of locations along the test section of a wind-wave facility. The computer-controlled blower provides airflow over the water in the tank whose rate can vary in time. In the present experiments, the wind speed in the test section initially increases quickly from rest to the set value. It is then kept constant for the prescribed duration; finally, the airflow is shut down. At the beginning of each experimental run, the water surface is calm and there is no wind. Operation of the blower is initiated simultaneously with the acquisition of data provided by all sensors by a computer; data acquisition continues until the waves in the tank fully decay. Multiple independent runs performed under identical forcing conditions allow determining statistically reliable ensemble-averaged characteristic parameters that quantitatively describe wind-waves&#39; variation in time for the initial development stage as a function of fetch. The procedure also allows characterizing the spatial evolution of the wave field under steady wind forcing, as well as decay of waves in time, once the wind is shut down, as a function of fetch.

This manuscript describes a fully computer-controlled procedure that allows obtaining reliable statistical parameters from experiments of water waves excited by steady and unsteady wind forcing in a small-scale facility.

This manuscript describes an experimental procedure that allows obtaining diverse quantitative information on temporal and spatial evolution of water ...