Name: monitoring stub1-mediated pexophagy
Uploaded: 2023-05-12T12:35:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Stub1-Mediated Pexophagy at JoVE.com

This work was supported in part by a MOST 111-2311-B-001-019-MY3 research grant from the National Science and Technology Council in Taiwan.

1. Preparation of cells expressing diKillerRed or self-labeling proteins (SLPs) in the peroxisome lumen
<ol>
	<li>Seed the desired cells on glass-bottomed cell culture dishes. For the experiment here, seed 2 x 105 human SHSY5Y cells in 840 &#181;L of culture medium (DMEM/F-12 supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin/streptomycin) or 6 x 104 mouse NIH3T3 cells in 840 &#181;L of culture medium (DMEM supplemented with 10% bovine serum and 1% penicillin/streptomycin)...

<ol>
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M., Lodhi, I. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peroxisomal+dysfunction+in+age-related+diseases.">Peroxisomal dysfunction in age-related diseases.</a> Trends in Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism. 28 (4), 297-308 (2017).</li><li>Fransen, M., Nordgren, M., Wang, B., Apanasets, O., Veldhoven, P. P. 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F., Subramani, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pexophagy:+The+selective+degradation+of+peroxisomes.">Pexophagy: The selective degradation of peroxisomes.</a> International Journal of Cell Biology. 2012, 512721 (2012).</li><li>Germain, K., Kim, P. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pexophagy:+A+model+for+selective+autophagy.">Pexophagy: A model for selective autophagy.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (2), 578 (2020).</li><li>Kim, P. K., Hailey, D. W., Mullen, R. T., Lippincott-Schwartz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ubiquitin+signals+autophagic+degradation+of+cytosolic+proteins+and+peroxisomes.">Ubiquitin signals autophagic degradation of cytosolic proteins and peroxisomes.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (52), 20567-20574 (2008).</li><li>Yamashita, S., Abe, K., Tatemichi, Y., Fujiki, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+membrane+peroxin+PEX3+induces+peroxisome-ubiquitination-linked+pexophagy.">The membrane peroxin PEX3 induces peroxisome-ubiquitination-linked pexophagy.</a> Autophagy. 10 (9), 1549-1564 (2014).</li><li>Nordgren, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Export-deficient+monoubiquitinated+PEX5+triggers+peroxisome+removal+in+SV40+large+T+antigen-transformed+mouse+embryonic+fibroblasts.">Export-deficient monoubiquitinated PEX5 triggers peroxisome removal in SV40 large T antigen-transformed mouse embryonic fibroblasts.</a> Autophagy. 11 (8), 1326-1340 (2015).</li><li>Zhang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ATM+functions+at+the+peroxisome+to+induce+pexophagy+in+response+to+ROS.">ATM functions at the peroxisome to induce pexophagy in response to ROS.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 17 (10), 1259-1269 (2015).</li><li>Chen, B. -. H., Chang, Y. -. J., Lin, S., Yang, W. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hsc70/Stub1+promotes+the+removal+of+individual+oxidatively+stressed+peroxisomes.">Hsc70/Stub1 promotes the removal of individual oxidatively stressed peroxisomes.</a> Nature Communications. 11 (1), 5267 (2020).</li><li>Hung, Y. H., Chen, L. M., Yang, J. Y., Yang, W. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatiotemporally+controlled+induction+of+autophagy-mediated+lysosome+turnover.">Spatiotemporally controlled induction of autophagy-mediated lysosome turnover.</a> Nature Communications. 4, 2111 (2013).</li><li>Mageswaran, S. K., Yang, W. Y., Chakrabarty, Y., Oikonomou, C. M., Jensen, G. 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Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bit-by-bit+autophagic+removal+of+parkin-labelled+mitochondria.">Bit-by-bit autophagic removal of parkin-labelled mitochondria.</a> Nature Communications. 4, 2428 (2013).</li><li>Los, G. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HaloTag:+A+novel+protein+labeling+technology+for+cell+imaging+and+protein+analysis.">HaloTag: A novel protein labeling technology for cell imaging and protein analysis.</a> ACS Chemical Biology. 3 (6), 373-382 (2008).</li><li>Lismont, C., Walton, P. A., Fransen, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+monitoring+of+subcellular+redox+dynamics+in+living+mammalian+cells+using+RoGFP2-based+probes.">Quantitative monitoring of subcellular redox dynamics in living mammalian cells using RoGFP2-based probes.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1595, 151-164 (2017).</li><li>Nordgren, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potential+limitations+in+the+use+of+KillerRed+for+fluorescence+microscopy.">Potential limitations in the use of KillerRed for fluorescence microscopy.</a> Journal of Microscopy. 245 (3), 229-235 (2012).</li></ol>

This protocol details how to trigger Stub1-mediated pexophagy within cell cultures by elevating peroxisomal ROS levels with light. As the protocol relies on dye-assisted ROS generation, one needs to ensure sufficient expression of diKillerRed-VKSKL or dye-labeled SLP ligand staining within the cells of interest. Given that different cell types or cells of different genetic backgrounds can harbor peroxisomes with slightly different properties, one may need to tune the exact illumination conditions to ensure the induction ...

Peroxisomes are single-membrane-bound organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes are a metabolic compartment essential for carrying out the beta-oxidation of very long-chain fatty acids, purine catabolism, and ether phospholipid and bile acid synthesis1. Peroxisome-derived acetyl-CoA controls lipid homeostasis by regulating the central signaling in metabolism2. Therefore, it is no surprise that compromised peroxisomal functions are implied in various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, aging, cancers, obesity, and diabetes3,4,5. An essential process in the maintenance of peroxisomal operation is pexophagy. Pexophagy is a catabolic process for the selective turnover of peroxisomes by autophagy. Cells use pexophagy to help control the quantity and quality of peroxisomes, thereby ensuring proper peroxisomal function. A recent study demonstrated that peroxisome loss caused by mutations in PEX1 peroxisomal biogenesis factors 1 and 6 results from uncontrolled pexophagy6. Notably, 65% of all peroxisome biogenesis disorder (PBD) patients harbor deficiencies in the peroxisomal AAA ATPase complex, composed of PEX1, PEX6, and PEX26 in mammalian cells7.
A number of methods can be used to initiate and study pexophagy. In yeast, pexophagy is triggered when the supplied nutrients are switched from peroxisome-dependent carbon sources to peroxisome-independent carbon sources (to lower cellular peroxisome numbers)8. For example, the transfer of methanol-grown Pichia pastoris cells from methanol medium to glucose medium and ethanol medium induces micropexophagy and macropexophagy, respectively8,9,10. Micropexophagy sequesters clustered peroxisomes for degradation by remodeling the vacuole to form cup-like vacuolar sequestration membranes and a lid-like structure termed the micropexophagy-specific membrane apparatus (MIPA). In macropexophagy, individual peroxisomes are engulfed by double-membrane structures known as pexophagosomes, followed by fusion with the vacuole for degradation8,9,10. The phosphorylation of pexophagy receptors, such as Atg36p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Atg30p in Pichia pastoris, is critical for the receptors to recruit core autophagy machinery and to facilitate peroxisomal targeting to autophagosomes8,11.
In mammalian cells, pexophagy can be induced by ubiquitination. Tagging the peroxisomal membrane proteins PMP34 or PEX3 with ubiquitin on the cytosolic side induces pexophagy12. The overexpression of PEX3 induces peroxisome ubiquitination and peroxisome elimination by lysosomes13. In addition, the fusion of PEX5 with a C-terminal EGFP impairs the export of monoubiquitinated PEX5 and results in pexophagy14. On the other hand, pexophagy can also be triggered by H2O2 treatment. Peroxisomes produce reactive oxygen species (ROS); specifically, the peroxisomal enzyme Acox1, which catalyzes the initial step of beta-oxidation of very long-chain fatty acids (&#62; 22 carbon), produces not only acetyl-CoA but also peroxisomal ROS. In response to the heightened ROS levels under H2O2 treatment, mammalian cells activate pexophagy to lower the ROS production and alleviate stress. It has been reported that H2O2 treatment drives the recruitment of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) to peroxisomes. ATM then phosphorylates PEX5 to promote peroxisomal turnover by pexophagy15.
Since peroxisomes are ROS-generating centers, they are also prone to ROS damage. ROS-elicited peroxisomal injuries force cells to activate pexophagy to initiate peroxisome quality control pathways (removal of the damaged peroxisome by autophagy). Here, we outline an approach for the on-demand triggering of ROS-elicited peroxisomal injury. The protocol takes advantage of light-activated ROS production within organelles16,17,18,19,20 (Figure 1). Dye-labeled peroxisomes are illuminated, leading to ROS production within the peroxisomal lumen, which specifically triggers peroxisomal injury. Using this protocol, it is shown that ROS-stressed peroxisomes are removed through a ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway. ROS-stressed peroxisomes recruit the ubiquitin E3 ligase Stub1 to allow their engulfment into autophagosomes for individual removal by pexophagy16. One can use this protocol to compare the fate of injured and healthy peroxisomes within the same cell by time-lapse microscopy. The method can also be used to globally damage all the peroxisomes (in all cells) on a culture dish, allowing for the biochemical analysis of the pexophagy pathway.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>35 mm culture dish with a 20 mm diameter glass microwell&#160;</td>
			<td>MatTek</td>
			<td>P35G-1.5-20-C</td>
			<td>20 mm glass bottomed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (3-AT)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A8056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bovine serum</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>16170060</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture incubator</td>
			<td>Nuaire</td>
			<td>NU-4750</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>diKillerRed-PTS1</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>made by appending the KillerRed tandem dimer with PTS1(VKSKL)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11965092</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium/Nutrient Mixture F-12 (DMEM/F-12)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11330032</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGFP-C1</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>pEGFP-C1</td>
			<td>The backbone of EGFP-C1 was used for cloning EGFP-Stub1, EGFP-Hsp70, EGFP-p62</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGFP-Hsp70</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hsp70 gene (HSPA1A) PCR amplified from HeLa cDNA and cloned into EGFP-C1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGFP-LC3B</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>11546</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGFP-p62</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>generated by inserting the human SQSTM1 gene (through PCR amplification of the HeLa cell cDNA) into EGFP-C1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGFP-Stub1</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>generated by inserting the mouse Stub1 gene (through PCR amplification of the total mouse kidney cDNA) into EGFP-C1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGFP-Ub</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>11928</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10437028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HaloTag TMR ligand&#160;</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>G8252</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HaloTag-PTS1</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>PTS1 appended and cloned into EGFP-C1 backbone</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15630080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Confocal Microscope&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>FV3000RS</td>
			<td>405 nm Ex, 488 nm Ex, 561 nm Ex,&#160; microscope with a TOKAI HIT chamber incubator and the UNIV2-D35 dish attachment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Janelia Fluor 646 HaloTag Ligand</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>GA1120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED</td>
			<td>VitaStar</td>
			<td>PAR64</td>
			<td>80 W, 555-570 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>lipofectamine 2000&#160;</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11668</td>
			<td>transfection reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIH3T3 cell</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-1658</td>
			<td>adherent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Opti-MEM</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>319850</td>
			<td>reduced serum media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15140</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PMP34-TagBFP</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>PMP34 PCR amplified from HeLa cDNA and cloned intoTagBFP-C (Evrogen FP171)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>roGFP2-PTS1</td>
			<td>Academia Sinica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>generated by appending eroGFP (taken from Addgene plasmid 20131) with the amino acid sequence VKSKL, and cloned into the EGFP-C1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SHSY5Y cell</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-2266</td>
			<td>adherent</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

monitoring stub1-mediated pexophagy

Mammalian cells can turn over peroxisomes through Stub1-mediated pexophagy. The pathway potentially permits cellular control of the quantity and quality of peroxisomes. During this process, heat shock protein 70 and the ubiquitin E3 ligase, Stub1, translocate onto peroxisomes to be turned over to initiate pexophagy. The Stub1 ligase activity allows the accumulation of ubiquitin and other autophagy-related modules on targeted peroxisomes. Elevating reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels within the peroxisomal lumen can activate Stub1-mediated pexophagy. One can, therefore, use dye-assisted ROS generation to trigger and monitor this pathway. This article outlines the procedures for using two classes of dyes, fluorescent proteins and synthetic fluorophores, to initiate pexophagy within mammalian cell cultures. These dye-assisted ROS generation-based protocols can not only be used to target all the peroxisomes within a cell population globally but can also permit the manipulation of individual peroxisomes within single cells. We also describe how Stub1-mediated pexophagy can be followed using live-cell microscopy.

The Stub1-mediated pexophagy induction scheme shown here takes advantage of dye-assisted ROS generation within the peroxisome lumen. This operation requires minimal light intensities. Peroxisomes containing fluorescent proteins or dyes can, therefore, be illuminated using standard laser-scanning confocal microscopes. Focal illumination leads to instantaneous and localized ROS production within individual peroxisomes, as indicated by the fluorescent reporter roGFP2-VKSKL (Figure 9).&#160;We d...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Stub1-Mediated Pexophagy at JoVE.com

Monitoring Stub1-Mediated Pexophagy

This protocol provides instructions for triggering and monitoring Stub1-mediated pexophagy in live cells.

Mammalian cells can turn over peroxisomes through Stub1-mediated pexophagy. The pathway potentially permits cellular control of the quantity and quality ...

Peroxisomes carry out beta oxidation and are prone to ROS damage. This method allows to investigate how cells deal with ROS-stressed peroxisomes. This protocol is not only used to globally target all the peroxisomes within a cell population but can also permit the manipulation of the individual peroxisomes within single cells.Dye-assisted ROS generation can also be used to target organelles outside of peroxisomes to probe how cells deal with organelle injuries. To begin, seed two times 10 to the fifth human SHSY5Y cells or six times 10 to the fourth mouse NIH H3T3 cells in 840 microliters of culture medium on glass-bottomed 35-millimeter culture dishes with a 20-millimeter diameter glass microwell. Grow the cells under 5%carbon dioxide at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours.Next, transfect the cells with desired plasmids using a transfection reagent or SHSY5Y cell transfection. Dilute plasmids in 55 microliters of serum-free DMEM/F-12 and dilute one microliter of transfection reagent in 55 microliters of serum-free DMEM/F-12. Combine the diluted DNA with the diluted reagent.Mix gently and incubate for 30 minutes at room temperature. Add the complex to the 20-millimeter microwell previously plated with 100 microliters of culture medium containing SHSY5Y cells without antibiotics. Gently shake the dish back and forth.Perform NIH 3T3 cell transfection as demonstrated before but substitute reduced serum medium instead of serum-free DMEM/F-12 for plasmid dilution and transfection reagent. After two hours of transfection, remove the transfection reagent-containing medium and add one milliliter of fresh culture medium. Incubate the NIH 3T3 or SHSY5Y cells at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide for 24 hours.For light-activated ROS production, at 24 hours post transfection remove the culture medium and add 10 microliters of 200 nanomolar HaloTag TMR ligand or 200 nanomolar Janelia Fluor 646 HaloTag ligand onto the 20-millimeter glass microwell. Transfer the dish to a 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide incubator and leave it for one hour to stain the cells. After one hour, remove the staining medium thoroughly and add one milliliter of fresh culture medium.Place a glass-bottomed dish containing the desired cells on a laser scanning confocal microscope equipped with a stage-top incubator. In the software, click on Tool Window, choose Ocular, and click on the DIA button to turn on the transmitted light. View the dish through the microscope eyepiece and bring the cells into focus by turning the focus knob.Choose LSM and click on the Dye Detector Select button. Double click on the desired dyes in the pop-up window to select the appropriate laser and filter settings for imaging the cells. Click on Live4x in the Live panel to initiate fast laser scanning to start screening for the fluorescent signals of the cells.Move the stage around using the joystick controller and locate the medium diKillerRed VKSKL or SLP-VKSKL-expressing cells to apply ROS stress on the peroxisomes. Acquire an image of the desired cell. Click on Tool Window and choose LSM Stimulation.Then click on the ellipse button and in the Live Image window use the mouse to draw an ROI of 15 micrometers in diameter containing the desired peroxisomes to which ROS stress will be applied. To apply ROS stress, use 561 nanometers for cells with the diKillerRed VKSKL or TMR-labeled SLP ligand and use 640 nanometers for cells stained with the Janelia Fluor 646-labeled SLP ligand. Select the laser wavelength for applying the ROS stress.Enter the desired laser percentage and the duration. For ROS production in the peroxisomes, click on Acquire and then the Stimulation button to initiate the scanning with 561 or 640 nanometers of light through the ROIs for 30 seconds each. This stimulation corresponds to approximately 5%laser power settings for 561 and 640 nanometers.After 30 seconds of laser illumination, peroxisomes within the ROIs lose their diKillerRed VKSKL, TMR, or Janelia Fluor 646 signals. This signal loss allows for distinguishing the illuminated and non-illuminated peroxisomes within the cell. To monitor the pexophagean live cells, follow the translocation of EGFP-tagged Stub1, Hsp70, ubiquitin, p62, or LC3B onto the illuminated or ROS-stressed peroxisomes by time lapse imaging using 10-minute intervals between frames.Focal illumination leads to instantaneous and localized ROS production within individual peroxisomes as indicated by the fluorescent reporter roGFP2-VKSKL. The diKillerRed VKSKL image was taken after all the roGFP2-VKSKL measurements were done to indicate the damaged peroxisomes'location. The data also show that unilluminated peroxisomes are not affected, indicating the precision of the methodology.This methodology was used to monitor Stub1-mediated pexophagy. During this process, Hsp70, Stub1, ubiquitinated proteins, autophagy adapters p62 and LC3B appear subsequently in ROS-stressed peroxisomes to drive pexophagy. Using the same strategy, it was possible to simultaneously damage all the peroxisomes on a culture dish for the biochemical characterization of Stub1-mediated pexophagy.Before LED illumination, EGFP-ubiquitin fluorescence was homogenous in the cytoplasm and did not colocalize with the peroxisomes. After nine hours of LED illumination, the EGFP-ubiquitin signals accumulated onto all the peroxisomes in the cells grown in a confocal dish. Using this protocol, we found that ROS-stressed peroxisomes are removed through a ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway.ROS-stressed peroxisomes recruit the ubiquitin E3 ligase Stub1 to allow their removal by pexophagy.

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Monitoring Actin Disassembly with Time-lapse Microscopy

Functional Imaging with Reinforcement, Eyetracking, and Physiological Monitoring

We use functional brain imaging (fMRI) to study neural circuits that underlie decision-making.  To understand how outcomes affect decision processes, ...

Single Molecule Methods for Monitoring Changes in Bilayer Elastic Properties

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition.  This regulation is due to a combination of specific lipid-protein ...

Monitoring Plant Hormones During Stress Responses

Plant hormones and related signaling compounds play an important role in the regulation of plant responses to various environmental stimuli and stresses. ...

Monitoring Acupuncture Effects on Human Brain by fMRI

Functional MRI is used to study the effects of acupuncture on the BOLD response and the functional connectivity of the human brain.  Results demonstrate ...

Monitoring Heart Function in Larval Drosophila melanogaster for Physiological Studies

Monitoring Heart Function in Larval Drosophila melanogaster for Physiological Studies

We present various methods to record cardiac function in the larval Drosophila. The approaches allow heart rate to be measured in unrestrained  and  ...

Bioassays for Monitoring Insecticide Resistance

Pest resistance to pesticides is an increasing problem because pesticides are an integral part of high-yielding production agriculture. When few products ...

Long-term Lethal Toxicity Test with the Crustacean Artemia franciscana

Long-term Lethal Toxicity Test with the Crustacean Artemia franciscana

Our research activities target the use of biological methods for the evaluation of environmental quality, with particular reference to saltwater/brackish ...

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must ...

Selected Reaction Monitoring Mass Spectrometry for Absolute Protein Quantification

Absolute quantification of target proteins within complex biological samples is critical to a wide range of research and clinical applications. This ...