Orienteering as a Tool for Cognitive Research: An Implementation Guide

Summary

The sport of orienteering is emerging as an effective way to train both the body and brain as it combines physical activity with spatial navigation. The current manuscript offers a guide on how to implement the sport of orienteering in research.

Abstract

The sport of orienteering combines physical activity with spatial navigation. Using only a map and a compass, the orienteer must locate a series of checkpoints over unfamiliar terrain using any navigational route they choose and while moving as quickly as possible. Although expert orienteers have superior spatial memory and navigational abilities, even a single session of orienteering can benefit cognition, suggesting that orienteering may be a promising way to train the brain. Research interventions involving orienteering may be especially beneficial for staving off Alzheimer's disease and related dementias that are afflicted by early impairments in wayfinding and spatial cognition. Though orienteering has gained traction in recent literature, certain barriers exist for researchers who are unfamiliar with the sport and wish to implement an intervention. Specifically, a lack of research-based resources for creating orienteering maps and courses may prevent those wishing to study orienteering from designing an intervention. Therefore, this report provides the fundamental information needed to develop orienteering maps and courses and how to implement orienteering interventions in a research setting.

Introduction

Orienteering combines spatial navigation with exercise, predominantly in the form of running. The objective of the sport is to use a map and compass to navigate to numerous checkpoints across an unfamiliar area as quickly as possible¹. Orienteers may choose any navigational route they wish to locate a series of checkpoints, called an orienteering course. Orienteering courses vary in navigational difficulty; the level of challenge is tailored to match the participant's skill level, ensuring an appropriate and engaging navigational experience.

The ability to locate checkpoints requires spatial processing and wayfinding skills, and orienteering experts of all ages report more efficient spatial strategies while navigating and better spatial processing than non-orienteering controls^2,3,4. When novices engage in orienteering at a vigorous exercise intensity, even a single session can improve spatial memory and increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a growth factor that supports the optimal functioning of brain cells⁵. Orienteering at a moderate intensity can also improve memory but may require consistent training. Bao and colleagues observed improvements in spatial memory when beginners participated in moderate-intensity orienteering twice weekly for 12 weeks (i.e., 24 sessions)⁶.

Although running alone can enhance the structure and function of brain regions like the hippocampus, improving spatial^7,8,9 and episodic memory^10,11,12, research suggests these effects may be amplified when running is combined with cognitively challenging tasks^{13,14,15,16,17,18}. Furthermore, orienteering often involves vigorous exercise with short breaks at the checkpoints, resembling high-intensity interval training (HIIT). This format of exercise has been shown to significantly boost cognitive function^{19, 20} and increase BDNF^21,22,23 more effectively than continuous, moderate-intensity exercise. Vigorous exercise may be especially beneficial for cognition because it causes the accumulation of lactate that can act as a fuel source for the brain²⁴ as well as an activator of BDNF to support cognitive function^25,26,27, but there is limited research examining this pathway in humans^28,29,30.

Multiple theories could explain why orienteering benefits cognition. For one, orienteering relies on processes similar to hunter-gatherer activities, and according to the Adaptive Capacity Model³¹, the brain and body may be more receptive to training activities with an evolutionary semblance. Moreover, orienteering requires spatial navigation, which has largely been engineered out of modern life due to the ubiquitous global positioning system (GPS) technology³², and so it may also be a case of "use it or lose it" ³³.

Given the novelty and promise of orienteering to enhance human cognition, it is important to develop resources and establish guidelines that help researchers unfamiliar with the sport implement an orienteering intervention. Therefore, this current protocol aims to provide researchers with the necessary steps for developing orienteering maps, courses, and interventions within a research setting.

Protocol

The data outlined in this manuscript are from a previous study that received ethical clearance from the Hamilton Integrated Research Ethics Board (#14560).

1. Choosing a location

1. Select an area for the orienteering intervention, such as a park, urban area, school campus, forested location, or a mix of these terrain types. Ensure the area is at least 500 m², free from hazards, and has clear boundaries for safety.

2. Creating an orienteering map

NOTE: If an orienteering map does not exist for the chosen location, create one.

1. Create a simple map: Create a simplified orienteering map when the chosen location is a park or urban area, when participants are of novice or intermediate-level skill, or in the absence of cartographic proficiency:
   1. Launch OpenOrienteeringMap (v.4, OOMap): Open an internet browser, visit www.OOmap.co.uk, and click Version 4 to access the latest version.
   2. Select the map area: Scroll to the selected map area and click on the location where the center of the map will be.
   3. Adjust the scale: In the scale panel, choose the appropriate scale for the map. Click the 10000 button for a large map area. Click the 5000 button for a small map area.
   4. Choose map features: In the top panel, click the PseudO button and then click the LIDAR (5 m) button to add elevation.
   5. Add additional elements: Click the Add-Map Features button to include other elements such as plaques, benches, etc., and toggle the Put Controls in a Temporary Layer for Selection button for each element.
   6. Change the map title: In the right-hand panel, click the pencil icon button beside the word "OpenOrienteeringMap" and change the title of the map.
   7. Generate the PDF map: Click the Save & get PDF map button at the top right of the screen (Figure 1).
2. Create a detailed map: Create a detailed orienteering map when the chosen location is forested or includes significant topographical detail. This is also a suitable option for advanced or expert-level orienteers or researchers with adequate cartographic skills.
   1. OpenOrienteeringMapper (free software): Launch the website www.openorienteering.org and download the appropriate version of OpenOrienteeringMapper (Open Orienteering) for the operating system (MacOS, Windows, Linux, Android). Follow the instructions provided on their website.
   2. OCAD for Orienteering (paid software): Launch the website www.ocad.com on an internet browser and download the OCAD for Orienteering (OCAD Inc.) software (Available for Windows). Follow the instructions provided on their website.
3. Create an orienteering map legend.
   1. Download the legend: Launch the website www.maprunner.co.uk/resources/Maprunner-map-symbols-2017.jpg on an internet browser. Download the legend (available as a JPG image) and save it to the computer.
   2. Print the legend: Ensure it is in color, clear and legible, and include it with the map.

Figure 1: A sample orienteering base map using OpenOriententeeringMap. Buttons and map elements required to create simplified maps have been highlighted. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

3. Designing an orienteering course

NOTE: An orienteering course is a sequence of checkpoints that participants must locate in numerical order, choosing any route that the participants prefer. The course's physical and navigational difficulty can be adjusted by varying the distance covered and the placement of the checkpoints (see section 3.2). The course's difficulty varies based on the participant's experience and skill. The course length (in kilometers) is determined by the participant's skill level (i.e., in the same amount of time, advanced orienteers will be able to complete a longer than a beginner), the runnability of the chosen terrain, and the participant's fitness level. For novice orienteers in most terrains, assume an average moving pace of 7-10 min per kilometer and adjust the course distance accordingly.

1. Create the orienteering course.
   1. If a detailed orienteering map was created using OCAD for Orienteering or OpenOrienteeringMapper (as in step 2.2), download and follow the instructions of either PurplePen (free; Windows; Purple Pen) or Condes (paid or free with "Lite" version; Windows; Condes).
   2. If a simple orienteering map was created using OpenOrienteeringMap (see step 2.1), use the same program to create the course.
      1. Open the map file: Open the map created in step 2.1 by entering the unique code found on the map into the MapID box at the top right of the webpage.
      2. Define the course type: In the Course Type panel, select the Linear button.
      3. Define the start and finish location: Click the desired location of the start and finish on the map and select the corresponding button (i.e., Start or Finish) in the Control Options panel.
         NOTE: Do not fill out the control number, score, or description fields for the start or finish in this panel.
      4. Add checkpoints: Click on the specific map location and select the corresponding button (Control) in the Control Options panel.
         NOTE: Refer to step 3.2. for guidance on selecting checkpoint locations for different course difficulties.
      5. Number and define checkpoints: In the Control Options panel from step 3.1.2.4., assign each checkpoint a number in sequential order and provide a description of the exact location of the checkpoint (i.e., path junction, boulder).
         NOTE: The magnetic north arrow at the top of the map can be used to further specify the control location descriptions (i.e., north-east corner of a building, south end of the bridge).
      6. Choose checkpoint locations on the map that are distinct (i.e., the intersection of two paths, the top of a hill) and avoid imprecise locations (i.e., halfway down a path, halfway down a slope).
      7. Separate checkpoints by at least 50m; the maximum separation distance depends on the participant's skill level (see step 3.2.)
      8. Generate the PDF clue sheet: Once the course is completed, click the Clues button in the top right panel to download and print a separate clue sheet of the checkpoints in the course.
      9. Generate the PDF map with the course. Click the Save & get PDF map button in the top right of the screen.
2. Select checkpoint locations based on course difficulty.
   NOTE: The navigational difficulty of an orienteering course can be adjusted by changing the location of the course checkpoints on the map, providing an adequate navigational challenge to participants of varying skill levels. While participants may choose any navigational route during a course, altering the checkpoint locations changes the number and complexity of route options between two points.
   1. Beginner-level courses (for participants with no orienteering experience)
      1. Starting at the start location, place checkpoints on the map in sequential order to form the orienteering course.
      2. Beginner-level courses involve no off-trail running. Place each subsequent checkpoint at trail or road junctions, crossings, or bends.
      3. Position each subsequent checkpoint such that only one navigational decision needs to be made between checkpoints.
         NOTE: For example, between checkpoints #1 and #2 of the beginner-level course in Figure 2, participants only need to decide which trail will correctly lead them to checkpoint #2 (Figure 2).
   2. Intermediate-level courses (for participants with some orienteering experience)
      1. Starting at the start location, place checkpoints on the map in sequential order to form the orienteering course.
      2. Intermediate-level courses primarily involve trail running with short distances of off-trail running to locate checkpoints. Place each subsequent checkpoint at distinguishable landscape features such as hilltops or large boulders near but not directly on major trails or roads.
      3. Position each subsequent checkpoint such that navigating between checkpoints involves multiple, simple navigational decisions using trails and other apparent guiding features.
         NOTE: For example, between checkpoints #4 and #5 of the intermediate level course in Figure 3, participants must decide which trail to take at two trail junctions, then locate the Northern fence corner near the trail (Figure 3).
      4. Include a variety of distances between course checkpoints.
   3. Advanced-level courses (for participants with considerable orienteering experience)
      1. Starting at the start location, place checkpoints on the map in sequential order to form the orienteering course.
      2. Position each subsequent checkpoint away from major trails or paths at a distinguishable terrain feature such as a hilltop or valley.
         NOTE: Advanced-level courses involve minimal trail running. Instead, navigation depends on using more complex terrain features or the use of a compass. For example, between checkpoints #4 and #5 of the advanced level course in Figure 4, there are no direct trails between checkpoints, requiring participants to rely on other terrain features or a compass to locate checkpoint #5, located at a distinguishable feature away from a trail (Figure 4).
      3. Include a variety of distances between course checkpoints.

Figure 2: A sample beginner-level orienteering course created in OpenOrienteeringMap. Descriptions of the control locations (clues) have been included with the map in this figure but may be printed as per step 3.2.1.8. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 3: A sample intermediate-level orienteering course created in OpenOrienteeringMap. Descriptions of the control locations (clues) have been included with the map in this figure but may be printed as per step 3.2.1.8. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Figure 4: A sample advanced-level orienteering course created in OpenOrienteeringMap. Descriptions of the control locations (clues) have been included with the map in this figure but may be printed as per step 3.2.1.8. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

4. Implementing an orienteering intervention

NOTE: The methodology for implementing an orienteering intervention can vary depending on the participant's experience with orienteering, available materials, exercise parameters, and research variables of interest. The protocol below outlines the essential steps to implement an orienteering intervention in a research setting.

1. Prepare the intervention maps and courses: Print the orienteering map with the course and other necessary materials (i.e., symbol legends, clue sheet, etc.) in color. Place these into a clear, reusable plastic sleeve for weather protection.
2. Set checkpoint markers.
   1. Physical checkpoint markers: Collect as many identifiable markers (orienteering flags, pin flags, streamers, flagging tape, or pylons, etc.) as there are checkpoints in the course.
      1. Label each physical checkpoint marker with the corresponding checkpoint number.
      2. Prior to the intervention, place each checkpoint marker at its corresponding location in the environment, ensuring it is visible.
   2. Virtual checkpoint markers: If placing a physical object at each checkpoint location is not feasible, use the MapRun Application and a smartphone (Free, Apple iOS and Android; MapRunners).
      1. Using the map and course files created in sections 2 and 3 of this protocol with OpenOrienteeringMap, follow the instructions at https://maprunners.weebly.com/new-user-of-maprun.html. The application will emit a tone when the participant enters the radius of a specified checkpoint using the phone's GPS.
3. Prepare the GPS sports watch.
   1. Choose a GPS sports watch capable of pairing with a chest heart rate strap to record the participant's route while navigating the course, such as those from Polar Electro (Kempele, Finland).
   2. Set the watch GPS sampling rate to every 1 s (preferred) or every 3 s and fasten it to the participant's appropriate wrist.
      NOTE: If utilizing the MapRun Application, the participant's route will be recorded using the application and a GPS sports watch is not required.
4. Teach basic orienteering skills: Before participants begin an orienteering course for the first time, teach important orienteering skills and concepts. For more advanced-level courses, refer to the skills outlined in Table 1.
   1. Review orienteering symbols: Using the symbol legend from step 2.3, review symbols and indicate examples of such elements in the terrain.
   2. Orienting the map without a compass:
      1. Instruct the participant to use the world around them to orient their map. Have the participant place their finger on their current location on the map, then drag their finger forward on the map. Ask the participant to describe what they touch on the map.
      2. Instruct the participant to look forward at the terrain, noting that they should see the same thing on the map. If it does not match, instruct the participant to rotate their map so that these elements line up and the map is oriented.
   3. Route planning: With the map oriented correctly, instruct the participant to examine the center of the control circle and, using orienteering symbols, ask the participant to describe what feature they are expecting to see at the control location. Ask the participant guiding questions such as "What features can we follow to arrive at this checkpoint?" "Will the checkpoint be to the left or right of a certain element in the terrain?" and "Can you point in the direction we must go to find this checkpoint?".
   4. Relocation: Outline what to do should a participant get lost. Instruct them to ensure that their map is correctly oriented before returning to the last place they were sure of their location before orienting their map and trying again.
5. Complete the orienteering course.
   1. At the start location, give the participant the map. When the participant is ready, ensure that the GPS sports watch or MapRun application is ready to record and begin recording.
   2. Allow the participant to complete the course on their own.
      NOTE: For safety and to ensure the participant travels to every checkpoint, it is suggested that a researcher follow the participant from a distance and only communicate to the participant their current location if they are no longer within the bounds of the orienteering course.
   3. End the session recording once the participant has reached the finish of the course.

5. Implementing chronic orienteering interventions

1. Location: To mitigate familiarity of the terrain during interventions spanning multiple weeks, use expansive areas or different locations for orienteering.
2. Gradual progression of orienteering course difficulty: Initiate the intervention with beginner-level participants and progress them to higher levels and more advanced courses. Introduce new skills each week. Refer to Table 1 for a suggested 6-week progression plan.
3. Incremental exercise intensity: Regularly increase the exercise intensity or course distance to maintain a consistent overall exercise load throughout the intervention, in line with the selected exercise parameters.

Table 1. Sample 6-week chronic orienteering program progression. The table outlines a sample lesson plan for administering a chronic orienteering intervention over 6 weeks, with two orienteering sessions per week. The course difficulty level and the different skills, purposes, and objectives to be taught are outlined for each session. Please click here to download this Table.

6. Evaluating orienteering performance

1. Analysis of orienteering performance using GPS route data
   1. View orienteering routes: Examine the routes of all participants, along with their corresponding heart rate and pace data, using the relevant watch application (e.g., PolarFlow, Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland) or from the MapRun application (see step 4.2.2.) if used.
   2. Comparative analysis of GPS routes: Compare the routes taken by all participants using simple platforms such as Google - MyMaps (Figure 5) or using more complex software such as ArcGIS (available for purchase or free trial; Windows; Esri).
2. Orienteering performance evaluation based on distance traveled: Calculate a ratio of the distance traveled (obtained from the GPS sports watch or MapRun Application) to the optional route distance (or average route distance) for completing the orienteering course.
   NOTE: Participants who make navigational errors will cover a greater distance than the most direct route possible for course completion. Higher ratio values indicate less navigational efficiency. See below for representative results of this performance evaluation.

Figure 5: A sample analysis of GPS routes taken by orienteering participants using Google MyMaps. The image includes routes taken by multiple participants highlighted in different colors and can be used to visualize navigational abilities throughout the orienteering course as outlined in step 6.1.2. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.

Discussion

Orienteering, which combines exercise with the cognitive challenge of navigation, offers a unique intervention with the potential to enhance cognitive functioning in domains highly impacted by age and dementia^2,6. However, the absence of standardized protocols and a general lack of knowledge about orienteering undermines the clinical utility of this sport. This paper addresses these gaps and provides a detailed protocol for designing orienteering maps and materials for implementing orienteering in a research setting for those with minimal orienteering knowledge.

Although orienteering interventions will vary in terms of their location and course set-up, this protocol provides comprehensive resources, materials, websites, and programs to develop an orienteering intervention aimed at measuring its cognitive effects. This guide is intended for information and educational purposes only and is provided 'as is' without any warranties, expressed or implied. The authors disclaim any responsibility for the application of the methods described and any liability for any adverse outcomes or damages resulting from their use. Researchers using this guide to develop their own orienteering interventions are solely responsible for assessing the associated risks of their methodology, obtaining appropriate institutional approvals, and ensuring compliance with all relevant ethical guidelines and regulations.

Choosing the map type in step 2 depends on available time, resources, cartography skills, and participant skill level. Detailed orienteering maps created in programs such as OCAD or OpenOrienteeringMapper (step 2.2) are generally recommended as they can show a greater level of detail and elaborate elevation data that simplified maps made with OpenOrienteeringMap are not able to show. As expert-level orienteers report being able to efficiently process high-level spatial information while running², detailed maps are recommended for such participants in order to match the complexity of map information available to their skills. However, creating detailed orienteering maps requires cartography knowledge and more time, which can be a barrier for researchers without previous orienteering knowledge, which may be a limitation to implementing an orienteering intervention. In such cases, simplified orienteering maps (step 2.1) can be made with OpenOrienteeringMap for all participant levels.

In step 3, it is important to sequentially add checkpoints in numerical order, starting from the start location and ending at the finish location. By doing so, the course-setter is better able to track the potential route options between checkpoints to alter the difficulty of the course effectively. For example, when setting a beginner-level course in sequential order, the course-setter can ensure that there is only one decision to be made by participants from one checkpoint to the next.

When teaching basic orienteering skills in step 4.4, some beginner-level participants may require more instruction than others to understand orienteering concepts. Research shows that individuals with no orienteering experience approach spatial navigation and processing differently and also have poorer spatial memory abilities than those with orienteering experience^2,3. This highlights individual differences in spatial memory abilities and their impact on orienteering learning and performance. Therefore, modifying the protocol to include more elaborate and detailed orienteering instructions may be necessary to accommodate these differences.

Choosing orienteering locations that are relatively unfamiliar to participants is recommended because an individual's navigational tendencies can vary between unfamiliar and familiar terrains³⁴. However, safety considerations and adaptations are crucial when implementing orienteering interventions, particularly in unfamiliar areas. A thorough risk assessment for all terrains used is advised before creating any orienteering course. Given that orienteering typically takes place outdoors and some courses require expansive space, not all locations, climates or weather conditions may be safe.

For safety purposes, participant's routes should be continuously tracked using a GPS sports watch or similar device and should be observed by a researcher (without interference) in order to monitor their time and location. When completing the orienteering intervention, as in step 4.5, it is critical that the GPS sports watch or MapRun application being used acquires a GPS signal and starts recording correctly in order to track the participant's route for the entirety of the course.

Additional safety considerations are recommended when participants are engaging in longer, advanced-level courses. This includes having a first-aid kit available, and emergency contact information of the participants. Participants may also be required to carry a communication device with them for emergency use only. As orienteering can be performed at high intensities, health assessments of all participants should be completed before engaging in orienteering to ensure they are physically capable of completing the orienteering course without undue risk. Finally, adequate hydration and nutrition should be available for the duration of the orienteering course and exercise parameters. By implementing these safety measures, the risk of accidents and emergencies can be significantly reduced. Researchers are reminded of their responsibility in assessing risk and obtaining necessary ethical approval for their unique intervention

In conclusion, as the field of orienteering research unfolds, this protocol provides information that researchers with minimal orienteering knowledge can use to design and implement orienteering interventions in a research environment. By using this protocol as a guide, future researchers will be able to create standardized orienteering maps and courses to study their desired outcomes.

Materials

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
Chest heart rate monitor strap	Polar Electro	https://www.polar.com/	Or any other device capable of recording heart rate continuously and that can pair with the chosen watch.
Clipboard	Staples	https://www.staples.com/clipboards	To record any in-field measures.
Colour printer	HP Laser Colour Printer	https://www.hp.com/	To print maps.
Computer	Lenovo IdeaPad	https://www.lenovo.com/in/en/c/laptops/ideapad/	Ensure the device chosen is capable of running your chosen orienteering map and course making software.
GPS Sports watch	Polar Electro	https://www.polar.com/	Or any other GPS watch with a sampling rate of 1–3 s.
OCAD for Orienteering	OCAD	https://www.ocad.com/en/
OpenOrienteeringMapper	Open orienteering	https://www.openorienteering.org/apps/mapper/
Orienteering Compass (for more advanced orienteers)	Suunto Oy	https://www.suunto.com/en-in/News/Suunto-introduces-stable-and-fast-AIM-compasses-for-competitive-orienteers/	Or any other compass model capable of orienting to Magnetic North and setting a bearing angle.
Orienteering control marker OR pin flag OR flagging tape OR pylon	Silva-USA (orienteering control markers) OR Amazon.com	n/a	Choose an item to mark each checkpoint location that is most feasible for your intervention.
Pen	Staples	https://www.staples.com	To record any in-field measures.
Plastic paper sleeve	Staples	https://www.staples.com/sheet-protectors/	To protect maps from weather.
Smartphone capable of running the MapRun Application	Apple, iPhone 12	https://www.apple.com/iphone/	Required if using the MapRun application as per step step 4.2.2.