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In This Article

  • Summary
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Protocol
  • Representative Results
  • Discussion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Materials
  • References
  • Reprints and Permissions

Summary

Here, we describe a high-speed magnetic tweezer setup that performs nanomechanical measurements on force-sensitive biomolecules at the maximum rate of 1.2 kHz. We introduce its application to DNA hairpins and SNARE complexes as model systems, but it will be also applicable to other molecules involved in mechanobiological events.

Abstract

Single-molecule magnetic tweezers (MTs) have served as powerful tools to forcefully interrogate biomolecules, such as nucleic acids and proteins, and are therefore poised to be useful in the field of mechanobiology. Since the method commonly relies on image-based tracking of magnetic beads, the speed limit in recording and analyzing images, as well as the thermal fluctuations of the beads, has long hampered its application in observing small and fast structural changes in target molecules. This article describes detailed methods for the construction and operation of a high-resolution MT setup that can resolve nanoscale, millisecond dynamics of biomolecules and their complexes. As application examples, experiments with DNA hairpins and SNARE complexes (membrane-fusion machinery) are demonstrated, focusing on how their transient states and transitions can be detected in the presence of piconewton-scale forces. We expect that high-speed MTs will continue to enable high-precision nanomechanical measurements on molecules that sense, transmit, and generate forces in cells, and thereby deepen our molecular-level understanding of mechanobiology.

Introduction

Cells actively sense and respond to mechanical stimuli. In doing so, many biomolecules display force-dependent properties that enable dynamic structural changes. Well-appreciated examples include mechanosensitive ion channels and cytoskeletal elements that provide the cells with key mechanical information from their surrounding environment.

In addition, molecules that show a unique force-bearing nature can also be considered mechanosensitive in a broader sense. For example, local formation and melting of nucleic acid duplexes, as well as higher-order structures such as G-quadruplexes, play crucial roles in replication, transcription, recomb....

Protocol

All materials and equipment described in this protocol are listed in the Table of Materials. LabVIEW software to operate the high-speed MT setup described below, as well as the MATLAB scripts to analyze sample data, are deposited on GitHub (https://github.com/ShonLab/Magnetic-Tweezers) and publicly available.

1. Construction of apparatus

NOTE: The general principle of the high-speed MT construction is similar to standard, conventional.......

Representative Results

Force calibration
The results from the two force measurement methods (beads' lateral displacement variance and power spectrum analysis) differed by 0-2 pN (Figure 2G). According to the results in Figure 2F, we can reliably reach up to 30 pN with regular neodymium magnets.

Two-state transitions of an 8 bp DNA hairpin
We first investigated the nanomechanics of a short DNA hairpin (

Discussion

In this work, we introduced a single-molecule force spectroscopy setup that can observe structural changes of biomolecules at high spatiotemporal precision. The high-speed CMOS camera used acquires 1,200 frames s−1 at 1,280 x 1,024 resolution, enabling 1.2 kHz bead tracking. However, the speed of measurements is currently limited by the bead tracking software, so the ROI is typically reduced to smaller areas in high-speed measurements. The high power of the SLD provides a bright illumination that is crit.......

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (NRF-2022R1C1C1012176, NRF-2021R1A4A1031754, and NRF- 2021R1A6A1A10042944). S.-H.R. was supported by the NRF grant (2021R1C1C2009717).

....

Materials

NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
Materials for construct synthesis
Agarose gel electrophoresis systemAdvanceMupid-2plus
DNA ladderBioneerD-1037
nTaq polymeraseEnzynomicsP050A
PCR purification kitLaboPassCMR0112
PEGylated SMCC crosslinker / SM(PEG)2ThermoFisher Scientific22102For SNARE–DNA coupling
Primer BBioneer5'-Biotin/TCGCCACCATCATTTCCA-3'For 5-kbp force calibration construct and DNA handles
Primer B_hpIDT5'-Biotin/TTTTTTTTTTGTTCTCTATTT
TTTTAGAGAAC /AP site/ /AP site/ TCGCCACCATCATTTCCA-3'
For hairpin construct
Primer NBioneer5'-C6Amine/CATGTGGGTGACGCGAAA-3'For DNA handles
Primer ZBioneer5'-Azide/TCGCCACCATCATTTCCA-3'For DNA handles
Primer Z_5kBioneer5'-Azide/TTAGAGAGTATGGGTATATGACA
TCG-3'
For 5-kbp force calibration construct
Primer Z_hpBioneer5'-Azide/GTGGCAGCATGACACC-3'For hairpin construct
SYBR Safe DNA Gel StainThermoFisher ScientificS33102
λ-DNABioneerD-2510Template strand for PCR
DNA sequences for SNARE proteins
6×His-tagged SNAP-25b (2-206; capitalized) in pET28ahomemadetggcgaatgggacgcgccctgtagcggcgca
ttaagcgcggcgggtgtggtggttacgcgca
gcgtgaccgctacacttgccagcgccctagc
gcccgctcctttcgctttcttcccttccttt
ctcgccacgttcgccggctttccccgtcaag
ctctaaatcgggggctccctttagggttccg
atttagtgctttacggcacctcgaccccaaa
aaacttgattagggtgatggttcacgtagtg
ggccatcgccctgatagacggtttttcgccc
tttgacgttggagtccacgttctttaatagt
ggactcttgttccaaactggaacaacactca
accctatctcggtctattcttttgatttata
agggattttgccgatttcggcctattggtta
aaaaatgagctgatttaacaaaaatttaacg
cgaattttaacaaaatattaacgtttacaat
ttcaggtggcacttttcggggaaatgtgcgc
ggaacccctatttgtttatttttctaaatac
attcaaatatgtatccgctcatgaattaatt
cttagaaaaactcatcgagcatcaaatgaaa
ctgcaatttattcatatcaggattatcaata
ccatatttttgaaaaagccgtttctgtaatg
aaggagaaaactcaccgaggcagttccatag
gatggcaagatcctggtatcggtctgcgatt
ccgactcgtccaacatcaatacaacctatta
atttcccctcgtcaaaaataaggttatcaag
tgagaaatcaccatgagtgacgactgaatcc
ggtgagaatggcaaaagtttatgcatttctt
tccagacttgttcaacaggccagccattacg
ctcgtcatcaaaatcactcgcatcaaccaaa
ccgttattcattcgtgattgcgcctgagcga
gacgaaatacgcgatcgctgttaaaaggaca
attacaaacaggaatcgaatgcaaccggcgc
aggaacactgccagcgcatcaacaatatttt
cacctgaatcaggatattcttctaatacctg
gaatgctgttttcccggggatcgcagtggtg
agtaaccatgcatcatcaggagtacggataa
aatgcttgatggtcggaagaggcataaattc
cgtcagccagtttagtctgaccatctcatct
gtaacatcattggcaacgctacctttgccat
gtttcagaaacaactctggcgcatcgggctt
cccatacaatcgatagattgtcgcacctgat
tgcccgacattatcgcgagcccatttatacc
catataaatcagcatccatgttggaatttaa
tcgcggcctagagcaagacgtttcccgttga
atatggctcataacaccccttgtattactgt
ttatgtaagcagacagttttattgttcatga
ccaaaatcccttaacgtgagttttcgttcca
ctgagcgtcagaccccgtagaaaagatcaaa
ggatcttcttgagatcctttttttctgcgcg
taatctgctgcttgcaaacaaaaaaaccacc
gctaccagcggtggtttgtttgccggatcaa
gagctaccaactctttttccgaaggtaactg
gcttcagcagagcgcagataccaaatactgt
ccttctagtgtagccgtagttaggccaccac
ttcaagaactctgtagcaccgcctacatacc
tcgctctgctaatcctgttaccagtggctgc
tgccagtggcgataagtcgtgtcttaccggg
ttggactcaagacgatagttaccggataagg
cgcagcggtcgggctgaacggggggttcgtg
cacacagcccagcttggagcgaacgacctac
accgaactgagatacctacagcgtgagctat
gagaaagcgccacgcttcccgaagggagaaa
ggcggacaggtatccggtaagcggcagggtc
ggaacaggagagcgcacgagggagcttcca
gggggaaacgcctggtatctttatagtcctgt
cgggtttcgccacctctgacttgagcgtcga
tttttgtgatgctcgtcaggggggcggagcc
tatggaaaaacgccagcaacgcggccttttt
acggttcctggccttttgctggccttttgct
cacatgttctttcctgcgttatcccctgatt
ctgtggataaccgtattaccgcctttgagtg
agctgataccgctcgccgcagccgaacgacc
gagcgcagcgagtcagtgagcgaggaagcgg
aagagcgcctgatgcggtattttctccttac
gcatctgtgcggtatttcacaccgcatatat
ggtgcactctcagtacaatctgctctgatgc
cgcatagttaagccagtatacactccgctat
cgctacgtgactgggtcatggctgcgccccg
acacccgccaacacccgctgacgcgccctga
cgggcttgtctgctcccggcatccgcttaca
gacaagctgtgaccgtctccgggagctgcat
gtgtcagaggttttcaccgtcatcaccgaaa
cgcgcgaggcagctgcggtaaagctcatcag
cgtggtcgtgaagcgattcacagatgtctgc
ctgttcatccgcgtccagctcgttgagtttc
tccagaagcgttaatgtctggcttctgataa
agcgggccatgttaagggcggttttttcctg
tttggtcactgatgcctccgtgtaaggggga
tttctgttcatgggggtaatgataccgatga
aacgagagaggatgctcacgatacgggttac
tgatgatgaacatgcccggttactggaacgt
tgtgagggtaaacaactggcggtatggatgc
ggcgggaccagagaaaaatcactcagggtc
aatgccagcgcttcgttaatacagatgtaggt
gttccacagggtagccagcagcatcctgcga
tgcagatccggaacataatggtgcagggcgc
tgacttccgcgtttccagactttacgaaaca
cggaaaccgaagaccattcatgttgttgctc
aggtcgcagacgttttgcagcagcagtcgct
tcacgttcgctcgcgtatcggtgattcattc
tgctaaccagtaaggcaaccccgccagccta
gccgggtcctcaacgacaggagcacgatcat
gcgcacccgtggggccgccatgccggcgata
atggcctgcttctcgccgaaacgtttggtgg
cgggaccagtgacgaaggcttgagcgagggc
gtgcaagattccgaataccgcaagcgacagg
ccgatcatcgtcgcgctccagcgaaagcggt
cctcgccgaaaatgacccagagcgctgccgg
cacctgtcctacgagttgcatgataaagaag
acagtcataagtgcggcgacgatagtcatgc
cccgcgcccaccggaaggagctgactgggtt
gaaggctctcaagggcatcggtcgagatccc
ggtgcctaatgagtgagctaacttacattaa
ttgcgttgcgctcactgcccgctttccagtc
gggaaacctgtcgtgccagctgcattaatga
atcggccaacgcgcggggagaggcggtttgc
gtattgggcgccagggtggtttttcttttca
ccagtgagacgggcaacagctgattgccctt
caccgcctggccctgagagagttgcagcaag
cggtccacgctggtttgccccagcaggcgaa
aatcctgtttgatggtggttaacggcgggat
ataacatgagctgtcttcggtatcgtcgtat
cccactaccgagatatccgcaccaacgcgca
gcccggactcggtaatggcgcgcattgcgcc
cagcgccatctgatcgttggcaaccagcatc
gcagtgggaacgatgccctcattcagcattt
gcatggtttgttgaaaaccggacatggcact
ccagtcgccttcccgttccgctatcggctga
atttgattgcgagtgagatatttatgccagc
cagccagacgcagacgcgccgagacagaa
cttaatgggcccgctaacagcgcgatttgctgg
tgacccaatgcgaccagatgctccacgccca
gtcgcgtaccgtcttcatgggagaaaataat
actgttgatgggtgtctggtcagagacatca
agaaataacgccggaacattagtgcaggcag
cttccacagcaatggcatcctggtcatccag
cggatagttaatgatcagcccactgacgcgt
tgcgcgagaagattgtgcaccgccgctttac
aggcttcgacgccgcttcgttctaccatcga
caccaccacgctggcacccagttgatcggcg
cgagatttaatcgccgcgacaatttgcgacg
gcgcgtgcagggccagactggaggtggcaac
gccaatcagcaacgactgtttgcccgccagt
tgttgtgccacgcggttgggaatgtaattca
gctccgccatcgccgcttccactttttcccg
cgttttcgcagaaacgtggctggcctggttc
accacgcgggaaacggtctgataagagacac
cggcatactctgcgacatcgtataacgttac
tggtttcacattcaccaccctgaattgactc
tcttccgggcgctatcatgccataccgcgaa
aggttttgcgccattcgatggtgtccgggat
ctcgacgctctcccttatgcgactcctgcat
taggaagcagcccagtagtaggttgaggccg
ttgagcaccgccgccgcaaggaatggtgcat
gcaaggagatggcgcccaacagtcccccggc
cacggggcctgccaccatacccacgccgaaa
caagcgctcatgagcccgaagtggcgagccc
gatcttccccatcggtgatgtcggcgatata
ggcgccagcaaccgcacctgtggcgccggtg
atgccggccacgatgcgtccggcgtagagga
tcgagatctcgatcccgcgaaattaatacga
ctcactataggggaattgtgagcggataaca
attcccctctagaaataattttgtttaactt
taagaaggagatataccATGGGCAGC
AGCCATCATCATCATCATCACA
GCAGCGGCCTGGTGCCGCGC
GGCAGCCATACTAGCGGAGAT
ATCGCCGAGGACGCAGACAT
GCGCAATGAGCTGGAGGAGA
TGCAGAGGAGGGCTGACCAG
CTGGCTGATGAGTCCCTGGA
AAGCACCCGTCGCATGCTGC
AGCTGGTTGAAGAGAGTAAA
GATGCTGGCATCAGGACTTT
GGTTATGTTGGATGAGCAAG
GCGAACAACTGGAACGCATT
GAGGAAGGGATGGACCAAAT
CAATAAGGACATGAAAGAAG
CAGAAAAGAATTTGACGGAC
CTAGGAAAATTCGCCGGCCT
TGCCGTGGCCCCCGCCAAC
AAGCTTAAATCCAGTGATGC
TTACAAAAAAGCCTGGGGC
AATAATCAGGATGGAGTAGT
GGCCAGCCAGCCTGCCCG
TGTGGTGGATGAACGGGAG
CAGATGGCCATCAGTGGTG
GCTTCATCCGCAGGGTAAC
AAATGATGCCCGGGAAAAT
GAGATGGATGAGAACCTG
GAGCAGGTGAGCGGCATC
ATCGGAAACCTCCGCCAC
ATGGCTCTAGACATGGGCA
ATGAGATTGACACCCAGA
ATCGCCAGATCGACAGGA
TCATGGAGAAGGCTGATT
CCAACAAAACCAGAATTG
ATGAAGCCAACCAACGTG
CAACAAAGATGCTGGGAA
GTGGTTAAggatccgaattcgag
ctccgtcgacaagcttgcggccgcactc
gagcaccaccaccaccaccactgagat
ccggctgctaacaaagcccgaaagga
agctgagttggctgctgccaccgctgag
caataactagcataaccccttggggcct
ctaaacgggtcttgaggggttttttgctga
aaggaggaactatatccggat
6×His-tagged VAMP2 (2-97, L32C/I97C; capitalized) in pET28ahomemadetggcgaatgggacgcgccctgtagcggcgca
ttaagcgcggcgggtgtggtggttacgcgca
gcgtgaccgctacacttgccagcgccctagc
gcccgctcctttcgctttcttcccttccttt
ctcgccacgttcgccggctttccccgtcaag
ctctaaatcgggggctccctttagggttccg
atttagtgctttacggcacctcgaccccaaa
aaacttgattagggtgatggttcacgtagtg
ggccatcgccctgatagacggtttttcgccc
tttgacgttggagtccacgttctttaatagt
ggactcttgttccaaactggaacaacactca
accctatctcggtctattcttttgatttata
agggattttgccgatttcggcctattggtta
aaaaatgagctgatttaacaaaaatttaacg
cgaattttaacaaaatattaacgtttacaat
ttcaggtggcacttttcggggaaatgtgcgc
ggaacccctatttgtttatttttctaaatac
attcaaatatgtatccgctcatgaattaatt
cttagaaaaactcatcgagcatcaaatgaaa
ctgcaatttattcatatcaggattatcaata
ccatatttttgaaaaagccgtttctgtaatg
aaggagaaaactcaccgaggcagttccatag
gatggcaagatcctggtatcggtctgcgatt
ccgactcgtccaacatcaatacaacctatta
atttcccctcgtcaaaaataaggttatcaag
tgagaaatcaccatgagtgacgactgaatcc
ggtgagaatggcaaaagtttatgcatttctt
tccagacttgttcaacaggccagccattacg
ctcgtcatcaaaatcactcgcatcaaccaaa
ccgttattcattcgtgattgcgcctgagcga
gacgaaatacgcgatcgctgttaaaaggaca
attacaaacaggaatcgaatgcaaccggcgc
aggaacactgccagcgcatcaacaatatttt
cacctgaatcaggatattcttctaatacctg
gaatgctgttttcccggggatcgcagtggtg
agtaaccatgcatcatcaggagtacggataa
aatgcttgatggtcggaagaggcataaattc
cgtcagccagtttagtctgaccatctcatct
gtaacatcattggcaacgctacctttgccat
gtttcagaaacaactctggcgcatcgggctt
cccatacaatcgatagattgtcgcacctgat
tgcccgacattatcgcgagcccatttatacc
catataaatcagcatccatgttggaatttaa
tcgcggcctagagcaagacgtttcccgttga
atatggctcataacaccccttgtattactgt
ttatgtaagcagacagttttattgttcatga
ccaaaatcccttaacgtgagttttcgttcca
ctgagcgtcagaccccgtagaaaagatcaaa
ggatcttcttgagatcctttttttctgcgcg
taatctgctgcttgcaaacaaaaaaaccacc
gctaccagcggtggtttgtttgccggatcaa
gagctaccaactctttttccgaaggtaactg
gcttcagcagagcgcagataccaaatactgt
ccttctagtgtagccgtagttaggccaccac
ttcaagaactctgtagcaccgcctacatacc
tcgctctgctaatcctgttaccagtggctgc
tgccagtggcgataagtcgtgtcttaccggg
ttggactcaagacgatagttaccggataagg
cgcagcggtcgggctgaacggggggttcgtg
cacacagcccagcttggagcgaacgacctac
accgaactgagatacctacagcgtgagctatg
agaaagcgccacgcttcccgaagggagaaa
ggcggacaggtatccggtaagcggcagggtc
ggaacaggagagcgcacgagggagcttcca
gggggaaacgcctggtatctttatagtcctgt
cgggtttcgccacctctgacttgagcgtcga
tttttgtgatgctcgtcaggggggcggagcc
tatggaaaaacgccagcaacgcggccttttt
acggttcctggccttttgctggccttttgct
cacatgttctttcctgcgttatcccctgatt
ctgtggataaccgtattaccgcctttgagtg
agctgataccgctcgccgcagccgaacgacc
gagcgcagcgagtcagtgagcgaggaagc
ggaagagcgcctgatgcggtattttctccttac
gcatctgtgcggtatttcacaccgcatatat
ggtgcactctcagtacaatctgctctgatgc
cgcatagttaagccagtatacactccgctat
cgctacgtgactgggtcatggctgcgccccg
acacccgccaacacccgctgacgcgccctga
cgggcttgtctgctcccggcatccgcttaca
gacaagctgtgaccgtctccgggagctgcat
gtgtcagaggttttcaccgtcatcaccgaaa
cgcgcgaggcagctgcggtaaagctcatcag
cgtggtcgtgaagcgattcacagatgtctgc
ctgttcatccgcgtccagctcgttgagtttc
tccagaagcgttaatgtctggcttctgataa
agcgggccatgttaagggcggttttttcctg
tttggtcactgatgcctccgtgtaaggggga
tttctgttcatgggggtaatgataccgatga
aacgagagaggatgctcacgatacgggttac
tgatgatgaacatgcccggttactggaacgt
tgtgagggtaaacaactggcggtatggatgc
ggcgggaccagagaaaaatcactcagggtc
aatgccagcgcttcgttaatacagatgtaggt
gttccacagggtagccagcagcatcctgcga
tgcagatccggaacataatggtgcagggcgc
tgacttccgcgtttccagactttacgaaaca
cggaaaccgaagaccattcatgttgttgctc
aggtcgcagacgttttgcagcagcagtcgct
tcacgttcgctcgcgtatcggtgattcattc
tgctaaccagtaaggcaaccccgccagccta
gccgggtcctcaacgacaggagcacgatcat
gcgcacccgtggggccgccatgccggcgata
atggcctgcttctcgccgaaacgtttggtgg
cgggaccagtgacgaaggcttgagcgagggc
gtgcaagattccgaataccgcaagcgacagg
ccgatcatcgtcgcgctccagcgaaagcggt
cctcgccgaaaatgacccagagcgctgccgg
cacctgtcctacgagttgcatgataaagaag
acagtcataagtgcggcgacgatagtcatgc
cccgcgcccaccggaaggagctgactgggtt
gaaggctctcaagggcatcggtcgagatccc
ggtgcctaatgagtgagctaacttacattaa
ttgcgttgcgctcactgcccgctttccagtc
gggaaacctgtcgtgccagctgcattaatga
atcggccaacgcgcggggagaggcggtttgc
gtattgggcgccagggtggtttttcttttca
ccagtgagacgggcaacagctgattgccctt
caccgcctggccctgagagagttgcagcaag
cggtccacgctggtttgccccagcaggcgaa
aatcctgtttgatggtggttaacggcgggat
ataacatgagctgtcttcggtatcgtcgtat
cccactaccgagatatccgcaccaacgcgca
gcccggactcggtaatggcgcgcattgcgcc
cagcgccatctgatcgttggcaaccagcatc
gcagtgggaacgatgccctcattcagcattt
gcatggtttgttgaaaaccggacatggcact
ccagtcgccttcccgttccgctatcggctga
atttgattgcgagtgagatatttatgccagc
cagccagacgcagacgcgccgagacagaa
cttaatgggcccgctaacagcgcgatttgctgg
tgacccaatgcgaccagatgctccacgccca
gtcgcgtaccgtcttcatgggagaaaataat
actgttgatgggtgtctggtcagagacatca
agaaataacgccggaacattagtgcaggcag
cttccacagcaatggcatcctggtcatccag
cggatagttaatgatcagcccactgacgcgt
tgcgcgagaagattgtgcaccgccgctttac
aggcttcgacgccgcttcgttctaccatcga
caccaccacgctggcacccagttgatcggcg
cgagatttaatcgccgcgacaatttgcgacg
gcgcgtgcagggccagactggaggtggcaac
gccaatcagcaacgactgtttgcccgccagt
tgttgtgccacgcggttgggaatgtaattca
gctccgccatcgccgcttccactttttcccg
cgttttcgcagaaacgtggctggcctggttc
accacgcgggaaacggtctgataagagacac
cggcatactctgcgacatcgtataacgttac
tggtttcacattcaccaccctgaattgactc
tcttccgggcgctatcatgccataccgcgaa
aggttttgcgccattcgatggtgtccgggat
ctcgacgctctcccttatgcgactcctgcat
taggaagcagcccagtagtaggttgaggccg
ttgagcaccgccgccgcaaggaatggtgcat
gcaaggagatggcgcccaacagtcccccggc
cacggggcctgccaccatacccacgccgaaa
caagcgctcatgagcccgaagtggcgagccc
gatcttccccatcggtgatgtcggcgatata
ggcgccagcaaccgcacctgtggcgccggtg
atgccggccacgatgcgtccggcgtagagga
tcgagatctcgatcccgcgaaattaatacga
ctcactataggggaattgtgagcggataaca
attcccctctagaaataattttgtttaactt
taagaaggagatataccATGGGCAGC
AGCCATCATCATCATCATCAC
AGCAGCGGCCTGGTGCCGC
GCGGCAGCCATATGGCAGAT
CTCTCGGCTACCGCTGCCAC
CGTCCCGCCTGCCGCCCCG
GCCGGCGAGGGTGGCCCCC
CTGCACCTCCTCCAAATCTTA
CCAGTAACAGGAGATGCCAG
CAGACCCAGGCCCAGGTGG
ATGAGGTGGTGGACATCATG
AGGGTGAATGTGGACAAGGT
CCTGGAGCGAGACCAGAAG
CTATCGGAACTGGATGATCG
CGCAGATGCCCTCCAGGCA
GGGGCCTCCCAGTTTGAAA
CAAGTGCAGCCAAGCTCAA
GCGCAAATACTGGTGGAAA
AACCTCAAGATGATGTGCTA
Aggatccgaattcgagctccgtcg
acaagcttgcggccgcactcgagcaccacca
ccaccaccactgagatccggctgctaacaaa
gcccgaaaggaagctgagttggctgctgcca
ccgctgagcaataactagcataaccccttgg
ggcctctaaacgggtcttgaggggttttttg
ctgaaaggaggaactatatccggat
6×His-tagged ΔN-VAMP2 (49–96; capitalized) and Syntaxin-1A (191–267, I202C/I266C; capitalized) in pETDuet-1homemadeggggaattgtgagcggataacaattcccctc
tagaaataattttgtttaactttaagaagga
gatataccATGGGCAGCAGCCATCA
TCATCATCATCACAGCAGCGG
CCTGGAAGTTCTGTTCCAGGG
GCCCGGTAATGTGGACAAGGT
CCTGGAGCGAGACCAGAAGCT
ATCGGAACTGGATGATCGCGC
AGATGCCCTCCAGGCAGGGGC
CTCCCAGTTTGAAACAAGTGC
AGCCAAGCTCAAGCGCAAATAC
TGGTGGAAAAACCTCAAGATGAT
GTAAgcggccgcataatgcttaagtcgaaca
gaaagtaatcgtattgtacacggccgcataa
tcgaaattaatacgactcactataggggaat
tgtgagcggataacaattccccatcttagta
tattagttaagtataagaaggagatatacat
ATGGCCCTCAGTGAGATCGAGA
CCAGGCACAGTGAGTGCATC
AAGTTGGAGAACAGCATCCG
GGAGCTACACGATATGTTCAT
GGACATGGCCATGCTGGTGG
AGAGCCAGGGGGAGATGATT
GACAGGATCGAGTACAATGTG
GAACACGCTGTGGACTACGTG
GAGAGGGCCGTGTCTGACACC
AAGAAGGCCGTCAAGTACCAG
AGCAAGGCACGCAGGAAGAA
GTGCATGATCTAActcgagtc
tggtaaagaaaccgctgctgcgaaatttgaa
cgccagcacatggactcgtctactagcgcag
cttaattaacctaggctgctgccaccgctga
gcaataactagcataaccccttggggcctct
aaacgggtcttgaggggttttttgctgaaag
gaggaactatatccggattggcgaatgggac
gcgccctgtagcggcgcattaagcgcggcgg
gtgtggtggttacgcgcagcgtgaccgctac
acttgccagcgccctagcgcccgctcctttc
gctttcttcccttcctttctcgccacgttcg
ccggctttccccgtcaagctctaaatcgggg
gctccctttagggttccgatttagtgcttta
cggcacctcgaccccaaaaaacttgattagg
gtgatggttcacgtagtgggccatcgccctg
atagacggtttttcgccctttgacgttggag
tccacgttctttaatagtggactcttgttcc
aaactggaacaacactcaaccctatctcggt
ctattcttttgatttataagggattttgccg
atttcggcctattggttaaaaaatgagctga
tttaacaaaaatttaacgcgaattttaacaa
aatattaacgtttacaatttctggcggcacg
atggcatgagattatcaaaaaggatcttcac
ctagatccttttaaattaaaaatgaagtttt
aaatcaatctaaagtatatatgagtaaactt
ggtctgacagttaccaatgcttaatcagtga
ggcacctatctcagcgatctgtctatttcgt
tcatccatagttgcctgactccccgtcgtgt
agataactacgatacgggagggcttaccatc
tggccccagtgctgcaatgataccgcgagac
ccacgctcaccggctccagatttatcagcaa
taaaccagccagccggaagggccgagcgca
gaagtggtcctgcaactttatccgcctccatc
cagtctattaattgttgccgggaagctagag
taagtagttcgccagttaatagtttgcgcaa
cgttgttgccattgctacaggcatcgtggtg
tcacgctcgtcgtttggtatggcttcattca
gctccggttcccaacgatcaaggcgagttac
atgatcccccatgttgtgcaaaaaagcggtt
agctccttcggtcctccgatcgttgtcagaa
gtaagttggccgcagtgttatcactcatggt
tatggcagcactgcataattctcttactgtc
atgccatccgtaagatgcttttctgtgactg
gtgagtactcaaccaagtcattctgagaata
gtgtatgcggcgaccgagttgctcttgcccg
gcgtcaatacgggataataccgcgccacata
gcagaactttaaaagtgctcatcattggaaa
acgttcttcggggcgaaaactctcaaggatc
ttaccgctgttgagatccagttcgatgtaac
ccactcgtgcacccaactgatcttcagcatc
ttttactttcaccagcgtttctgggtgagcaaa
aacaggaaggcaaaatgccgcaaaaaagg
gaataagggcgacacggaaatgttgaatact
catactcttcctttttcaatcatgattgaag
catttatcagggttattgtctcatgagcgga
tacatatttgaatgtatttagaaaaataaac
aaataggtcatgaccaaaatcccttaacgtg
agttttcgttccactgagcgtcagaccccgt
agaaaagatcaaaggatcttcttgagatcct
ttttttctgcgcgtaatctgctgcttgcaaa
caaaaaaaccaccgctaccagcggtggtttg
tttgccggatcaagagctaccaactcttttt
ccgaaggtaactggcttcagcagagcgcaga
taccaaatactgtccttctagtgtagccgta
gttaggccaccacttcaagaactctgtagca
ccgcctacatacctcgctctgctaatcctgt
taccagtggctgctgccagtggcgataagtc
gtgtcttaccgggttggactcaagacgatag
ttaccggataaggcgcagcggtcgggctgaa
cggggggttcgtgcacacagcccagcttgga
gcgaacgacctacaccgaactgagataccta
cagcgtgagctatgagaaagcgccacgcttccc
gaagggagaaaggcggacaggtatccggta
agcggcagggtcggaacaggagagcgcac
gagggagcttccagggggaaacgcctggtatc
tttatagtcctgtcgggtttcgccacctctg
acttgagcgtcgatttttgtgatgctcgtca
ggggggcggagcctatggaaaaacgccagc
aacgcggcctttttacggttcctggccttttg
ctggccttttgctcacatgttctttcctgcg
ttatcccctgattctgtggataaccgtatta
ccgcctttgagtgagctgataccgctcgccgc
agccgaacgaccgagcgcagcgagtcagtg
agcgaggaagcggaagagcgcctgatgcgg
tattttctccttacgcatctgtgcggtatttc
acaccgcatatatggtgcactctcagtacaa
tctgctctgatgccgcatagttaagccagta
tacactccgctatcgctacgtgactgggtca
tggctgcgccccgacacccgccaacacccgc
tgacgcgccctgacgggcttgtctgctcccg
gcatccgcttacagacaagctgtgaccgtct
ccgggagctgcatgtgtcagaggttttcacc
gtcatcaccgaaacgcgcgaggcagctgcgg
taaagctcatcagcgtggtcgtgaagcgatt
cacagatgtctgcctgttcatccgcgtccag
ctcgttgagtttctccagaagcgttaatgtc
tggcttctgataaagcgggccatgttaaggg
cggttttttcctgtttggtcactgatgcctc
cgtgtaagggggatttctgttcatgggggta
atgataccgatgaaacgagagaggatgctca
cgatacgggttactgatgatgaacatgcccg
gttactggaacgttgtgagggtaaacaactg
gcggtatggatgcggcgggaccagagaaaaa
tcactcagggtcaatgccagcgcttcgttaa
tacagatgtaggtgttccacagggtagccag
cagcatcctgcgatgcagatccggaacataa
tggtgcagggcgctgacttccgcgtttccag
actttacgaaacacggaaaccgaagaccatt
catgttgttgctcaggtcgcagacgttttgc
agcagcagtcgcttcacgttcgctcgcgtat
cggtgattcattctgctaaccagtaaggcaa
ccccgccagcctagccgggtcctcaacgaca
ggagcacgatcatgctagtcatgccccgcgc
ccaccggaaggagctgactgggttgaaggct
ctcaagggcatcggtcgagatcccggtgcct
aatgagtgagctaacttacattaattgcgtt
gcgctcactgcccgctttccagtcgggaaac
ctgtcgtgccagctgcattaatgaatcggcc
aacgcgcggggagaggcggtttgcgtattgg
gcgccagggtggtttttcttttcaccagtga
gacgggcaacagctgattgcccttcaccgcc
tggccctgagagagttgcagcaagcggtcca
cgctggtttgccccagcaggcgaaaatcctg
tttgatggtggttaacggcgggatataacat
gagctgtcttcggtatcgtcgtatcccacta
ccgagatgtccgcaccaacgcgcagcccgga
ctcggtaatggcgcgcattgcgcccagcgcc
atctgatcgttggcaaccagcatcgcagtgg
gaacgatgccctcattcagcatttgcatggt
ttgttgaaaaccggacatggcactccagtcg
ccttcccgttccgctatcggctgaatttgat
tgcgagtgagatatttatgccagccagccag
acgcagacgcgccgagacagaacttaatggg
cccgctaacagcgcgatttgctggtgaccca
atgcgaccagatgctccacgcccagtcgcgt
accgtcttcatgggagaaaataatactgttg
atgggtgtctggtcagagacatcaagaaata
acgccggaacattagtgcaggcagcttccac
agcaatggcatcctggtcatccagcggatag
ttaatgatcagcccactgacgcgttgcgcga
gaagattgtgcaccgccgctttacaggcttc
gacgccgcttcgttctaccatcgacaccacc
acgctggcacccagttgatcggcgcgagatt
taatcgccgcgacaatttgcgacggcgcgtg
cagggccagactggaggtggcaacgccaatc
agcaacgactgtttgcccgccagttgttgtg
ccacgcggttgggaatgtaattcagctccgc
catcgccgcttccactttttcccgcgttttc
gcagaaacgtggctggcctggttcaccacgc
gggaaacggtctgataagagacaccggcata
ctctgcgacatcgtataacgttactggtttc
acattcaccaccctgaattgactctcttccg
ggcgctatcatgccataccgcgaaaggtttt
gcgccattcgatggtgtccgggatctcgacg
ctctcccttatgcgactcctgcattaggaag
cagcccagtagtaggttgaggccgttgagca
ccgccgccgcaaggaatggtgcatgcaagga
gatggcgcccaacagtcccccggccacgggg
cctgccaccatacccacgccgaaacaagcgc
tcatgagcccgaagtggcgagcccgatcttc
cccatcggtgatgtcggcgatataggcgcca
gcaaccgcacctgtggcgccggtgatgccgg
ccacgatgcgtccggcgtagaggatcgagat
cgatctcgatcccgcgaaattaatacgactc
actata
SNAP-25b (1–206, all C to A; capitalized) in pET28ahomemadetggcgaatgggacgcgccctgtagcggcgca
ttaagcgcggcgggtgtggtggttacgcgca
gcgtgaccgctacacttgccagcgccctagc
gcccgctcctttcgctttcttcccttccttt
ctcgccacgttcgccggctttccccgtcaag
ctctaaatcgggggctccctttagggttccg
atttagtgctttacggcacctcgaccccaaa
aaacttgattagggtgatggttcacgtagtg
ggccatcgccctgatagacggtttttcgccc
tttgacgttggagtccacgttctttaatagt
ggactcttgttccaaactggaacaacactca
accctatctcggtctattcttttgatttata
agggattttgccgatttcggcctattggtta
aaaaatgagctgatttaacaaaaatttaacg
cgaattttaacaaaatattaacgtttacaat
ttcaggtggcacttttcggggaaatgtgcgc
ggaacccctatttgtttatttttctaaatac
attcaaatatgtatccgctcatgaattaatt
cttagaaaaactcatcgagcatcaaatgaaa
ctgcaatttattcatatcaggattatcaata
ccatatttttgaaaaagccgtttctgtaatg
aaggagaaaactcaccgaggcagttccatag
gatggcaagatcctggtatcggtctgcgatt
ccgactcgtccaacatcaatacaacctatta
atttcccctcgtcaaaaataaggttatcaag
tgagaaatcaccatgagtgacgactgaatcc
ggtgagaatggcaaaagtttatgcatttctt
tccagacttgttcaacaggccagccattacg
ctcgtcatcaaaatcactcgcatcaaccaaa
ccgttattcattcgtgattgcgcctgagcga
gacgaaatacgcgatcgctgttaaaaggaca
attacaaacaggaatcgaatgcaaccggcgc
aggaacactgccagcgcatcaacaatatttt
cacctgaatcaggatattcttctaatacctg
gaatgctgttttcccggggatcgcagtggtg
agtaaccatgcatcatcaggagtacggataa
aatgcttgatggtcggaagaggcataaattc
cgtcagccagtttagtctgaccatctcatct
gtaacatcattggcaacgctacctttgccat
gtttcagaaacaactctggcgcatcgggctt
cccatacaatcgatagattgtcgcacctgat
tgcccgacattatcgcgagcccatttatacc
catataaatcagcatccatgttggaatttaa
tcgcggcctagagcaagacgtttcccgttga
atatggctcataacaccccttgtattactgt
ttatgtaagcagacagttttattgttcatga
ccaaaatcccttaacgtgagttttcgttcca
ctgagcgtcagaccccgtagaaaagatcaaa
ggatcttcttgagatcctttttttctgcgcg
taatctgctgcttgcaaacaaaaaaaccacc
gctaccagcggtggtttgtttgccggatcaa
gagctaccaactctttttccgaaggtaactg
gcttcagcagagcgcagataccaaatactgt
ccttctagtgtagccgtagttaggccaccac
ttcaagaactctgtagcaccgcctacatacc
tcgctctgctaatcctgttaccagtggctgc
tgccagtggcgataagtcgtgtcttaccggg
ttggactcaagacgatagttaccggataagg
cgcagcggtcgggctgaacggggggttcgtg
cacacagcccagcttggagcgaacgacctac
accgaactgagatacctacagcgtgagctatg
agaaagcgccacgcttcccgaagggagaaa
ggcggacaggtatccggtaagcggcagggtc
ggaacaggagagcgcacgagggagcttcc
agggggaaacgcctggtatctttatagtcctgt
cgggtttcgccacctctgacttgagcgtcga
tttttgtgatgctcgtcaggggggcggagcc
tatggaaaaacgccagcaacgcggccttttt
acggttcctggccttttgctggccttttgct
cacatgttctttcctgcgttatcccctgatt
ctgtggataaccgtattaccgcctttgagtg
agctgataccgctcgccgcagccgaacgacc
gagcgcagcgagtcagtgagcgaggaagc
ggaagagcgcctgatgcggtattttctccttac
gcatctgtgcggtatttcacaccgcatatat
ggtgcactctcagtacaatctgctctgatgc
cgcatagttaagccagtatacactccgctat
cgctacgtgactgggtcatggctgcgccccg
acacccgccaacacccgctgacgcgccctga
cgggcttgtctgctcccggcatccgcttaca
gacaagctgtgaccgtctccgggagctgcat
gtgtcagaggttttcaccgtcatcaccgaaa
cgcgcgaggcagctgcggtaaagctcatcag
cgtggtcgtgaagcgattcacagatgtctgc
ctgttcatccgcgtccagctcgttgagtttc
tccagaagcgttaatgtctggcttctgataa
agcgggccatgttaagggcggttttttcctg
tttggtcactgatgcctccgtgtaaggggga
tttctgttcatgggggtaatgataccgatga
aacgagagaggatgctcacgatacgggttac
tgatgatgaacatgcccggttactggaacgt
tgtgagggtaaacaactggcggtatggatgc
ggcgggaccagagaaaaatcactcagggtc
aatgccagcgcttcgttaatacagatgtaggt
gttccacagggtagccagcagcatcctgcga
tgcagatccggaacataatggtgcagggcgc
tgacttccgcgtttccagactttacgaaaca
cggaaaccgaagaccattcatgttgttgctc
aggtcgcagacgttttgcagcagcagtcgct
tcacgttcgctcgcgtatcggtgattcattc
tgctaaccagtaaggcaaccccgccagccta
gccgggtcctcaacgacaggagcacgatcat
gcgcacccgtggggccgccatgccggcgata
atggcctgcttctcgccgaaacgtttggtgg
cgggaccagtgacgaaggcttgagcgagggc
gtgcaagattccgaataccgcaagcgacagg
ccgatcatcgtcgcgctccagcgaaagcggt
cctcgccgaaaatgacccagagcgctgccgg
cacctgtcctacgagttgcatgataaagaag
acagtcataagtgcggcgacgatagtcatgc
cccgcgcccaccggaaggagctgactgggtt
gaaggctctcaagggcatcggtcgagatccc
ggtgcctaatgagtgagctaacttacattaa
ttgcgttgcgctcactgcccgctttccagtc
gggaaacctgtcgtgccagctgcattaatga
atcggccaacgcgcggggagaggcggtttgc
gtattgggcgccagggtggtttttcttttca
ccagtgagacgggcaacagctgattgccctt
caccgcctggccctgagagagttgcagcaag
cggtccacgctggtttgccccagcaggcgaa
aatcctgtttgatggtggttaacggcgggat
ataacatgagctgtcttcggtatcgtcgtat
cccactaccgagatatccgcaccaacgcgca
gcccggactcggtaatggcgcgcattgcgcc
cagcgccatctgatcgttggcaaccagcatc
gcagtgggaacgatgccctcattcagcattt
gcatggtttgttgaaaaccggacatggcact
ccagtcgccttcccgttccgctatcggctga
atttgattgcgagtgagatatttatgccagc
cagccagacgcagacgcgccgagacagaa
cttaatgggcccgctaacagcgcgatttgctgg
tgacccaatgcgaccagatgctccacgccca
gtcgcgtaccgtcttcatgggagaaaataat
actgttgatgggtgtctggtcagagacatca
agaaataacgccggaacattagtgcaggcag
cttccacagcaatggcatcctggtcatccag
cggatagttaatgatcagcccactgacgcgt
tgcgcgagaagattgtgcaccgccgctttac
aggcttcgacgccgcttcgttctaccatcga
caccaccacgctggcacccagttgatcggcg
cgagatttaatcgccgcgacaatttgcgacg
gcgcgtgcagggccagactggaggtggcaac
gccaatcagcaacgactgtttgcccgccagt
tgttgtgccacgcggttgggaatgtaattca
gctccgccatcgccgcttccactttttcccg
cgttttcgcagaaacgtggctggcctggttc
accacgcgggaaacggtctgataagagacac
cggcatactctgcgacatcgtataacgttac
tggtttcacattcaccaccctgaattgactc
tcttccgggcgctatcatgccataccgcgaa
aggttttgcgccattcgatggtgtccgggat
ctcgacgctctcccttatgcgactcctgcat
taggaagcagcccagtagtaggttgaggccg
ttgagcaccgccgccgcaaggaatggtgcat
gcaaggagatggcgcccaacagtcccccggc
cacggggcctgccaccatacccacgccgaaa
caagcgctcatgagcccgaagtggcgagccc
gatcttccccatcggtgatgtcggcgatata
ggcgccagcaaccgcacctgtggcgccggtg
atgccggccacgatgcgtccggcgtagagga
tcgagatctcgatcccgcgaaattaatacga
ctcactataggggaattgtgagcggataaca
attcccctctagaaataattttgtttaactt
taagaaggagatataccATGGCCGA
GGACGCAGACATGCGCAATG
AGCTGGAGGAGATGCAGAGG
AGGGCTGACCAGCTGGCTGA
TGAGTCCCTGGAAAGCACCC
GTCGCATGCTGCAGCTGGTT
GAAGAGAGTAAAGATGCTGG
CATCAGGACTTTGGTTATGTT
GGATGAGCAAGGCGAACAAC
TGGAACGCATTGAGGAAGGG
ATGGACCAAATCAATAAGGAC
ATGAAAGAAGCAGAAAAGAAT
TTGACGGACCTAGGAAAATTC
GCCGGCCTTGCCGTGGCCCC
CGCCAACAAGCTTAAATCCAG
TGATGCTTACAAAAAAGCCTG
GGGCAATAATCAGGATGGAGT
AGTGGCCAGCCAGCCTGCCC
GTGTGGTGGATGAACGGGAG
CAGATGGCCATCAGTGGTGGC
TTCATCCGCAGGGTAACAAAT
GATGCCCGGGAAAATGAGATG
GATGAGAACCTGGAGCAGGT
GAGCGGCATCATCGGAAACCT
CCGCCACATGGCTCTAGACAT
GGGCAATGAGATTGACACCCA
GAATCGCCAGATCGACAGGAT
CATGGAGAAGGCTGATTCCAA
CAAAACCAGAATTGATGAAGC
CAACCAACGTGCAACAAAGAT
GCTGGGAAGTGGTTAA
ctcgagcaccaccaccaccaccactgag
atccggctgctaacaaagcccgaaagga
agctgagttggctgctgccaccgctgagc
aataactagcataaccccttggggcctc
taaacgggtcttgaggggttttttgctgaa
aggaggaactatatccggat
Materials for protein purificaiton
2-MercaptoethanolSIGMAM3148-25ML
AgarLPS SolutionAGA500
Ampicillin, Sodium saltPLSAC1043-005-00
ChloramphenicolPLSCR1023-050-00
Competent cells (E. coli)Novagen70956Rosetta(DE3)pLysS
GlycerolSIGMAG5516-500ML
HEPESSIGMAH4034-100G
Hydrochloric acid / HClSIGMA320331-500ML
ImidazoleSIGMAI2399-100G
Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside / IPTGSIGMA10724815001
Kanamycin SulfatePLSKC1001-005-02
Luria-Bertani (LB) BrothLPS SolutionLB-05
Ni-NTA resinQiagen30210
PD MiniTrap G-25 (desalting column)CytivaGE28-9180-07For instructions, see: https://www.cytivalifesciences.com/en/us/shop/chromatography/prepacked-columns/desalting-and-buffer-exchange/pd-minitrap-desalting-columns-with-sephadex-g-25-resin-p-06174
Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride / PMSFThermoFisher Scientific36978
Plasmids for SNARE proteinscloned in houseN/AAvailable upon request
Protease inhibitor cocktailgenDEPOTP3100
Sodium chlorideSIGMAS5886-500G
Sodium phosphate dibasic / Na2HPO4SIGMAS7907-100G
Sodium phosphate monobasic / NaH2PO4SIGMAS3139-250G
Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine / TCEPSIGMAC4706-2G
Trizma baseSIGMAT1503-250G
Materials for sample assembly
Biotin-PEG-SVALAYSAN BIOBIO-PEG-SVA-5K-100MG & MPEG-SVA-5K-1gFor PEGylation
Dibenzocyclooctyne-amine / DBCO-NH2SIGMA761540-10MGFor bead coating
Double-sided tape3M136For flow cell assembly
Epoxy glueDEVCONS-208For flow cell assembly
Glass coverslip for bottom surfaceVWR48393-251Rectangular, 60×24 mm, #1.5
Glass coverslip for top surfaceVWR48393-241Rectangular, 50×24 mm, #1.5
Magnetic beadThermoFisher Scientific14301Dynabeads M-270 Epoxy, 2.8 μm
mPEG-SVALAYSAN BIOmPEG-SVA 1gFor PEGylation
N,N-Dimethylformamide / DMFSIGMAD4551-250MLFor bead coating
N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamineSIGMA104884-100MLFor PEGylation
NeutravidinThermoFisher Scientific31000For sample tethering
Phosphate buffered saline / PBS, pH 7.2PLSPR2007-100-00
Plastic syringeNorm-jectA55 ml, luer tip
Polyethylene TubingSCIBB31695-PE/4PE-60
Reference beadSPHEROTECHSVP-30-5Streptavidin-coated Polystyrene Particles; 3.0-3.4 µm
Syringe needleKovax21G-1 1/4''21 G
Syringe pumpKD SCIENTIFIC788210
Equipment for magnetic tweezer instrument
1-axis motorized microtranslation stagePIM-126.PD1For vertical positioning of magnets
2-axis manual translation stageST1LEE400For alignment of magnets to the optical axis
Acrylic holder for magnetsDaiKwang Precisioncustum orderDrawing available upon request
Frame grabberActive SiliconAS-FBD-4XCXP6-2PE8
High-speed CMOS cameraMikrotronEoSens 3CXP
Inverted microscopeOlympusIX73P2F-1-2
Neodymium magnetsLG magnetND 10x10x12tDimension: 10 mm × 10 mm × 12 mm; two needed
Objective lensOlympusUPLXAPO100XOOil-immersion, NA 1.45
Objective lens nanopositionerMad City LabsNano-F100S
Rotation stepper motorAUTONICSA3K-S545WFor rotating magnets
Superluminescent diodeQPHOTONICSQSDM-680-2680 nm
Software
LabVIEWNational Instrumentsv20.0f1
MATLABMathWorksv2021a

References

  1. Le, S., Liu, R., Lim, C. T., Yan, J. Uncovering mechanosensing mechanisms at the single protein level using magnetic tweezers. Methods. 94, 13-18 (2016).
  2. Choi, H. -. K., Kim, H. G., Shon, M. J., Yoon, T. -. Y. High....

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