Name: directed protein packaging within outer membrane vesicles from escherichia coli: design, production and purification
Uploaded: 2016-11-16T12:30:00
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This research was funded by the Office of Naval Research through Core funds provided to the Naval Research Laboratory.

1. Preparation of Plasmids
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a plasmid (e.g., pET22) containing the anchor protein (OmpA) fused to a biorthogonal linkage domain (referred to in this protocol as anchor-ST), epitope tag (such as 6xHis, myc or FLAG tags for purification and identification), periplasmic localization tag, antibiotic resistance, and appropriate origin of replication based on the selected bacterial strain7.
	<ol>
		<li>Extract plasmid DNA from overnight cultures using a commercially available DNA isolatio...

<ol>
	<li>Avila-Calderon, E. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Roles+of+bacterial+membrane+vesicles.">Roles of bacterial membrane vesicles.</a> Arch. Microbiol. 197, 1-10 (2015).</li><li>Kulp, A., Kuehn, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biological+functions+and+biogenesis+of+secreted+bacterial+outer+membrane+vesicles.">Biological functions and biogenesis of secreted bacterial outer membrane vesicles.</a> Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 64, 163-184 (2010).</li><li>Beveridge, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structures+of+Gram+negative+cell+walls+and+their+derived+membrane+vesicles.">Structures of Gram negative cell walls and their derived membrane vesicles.</a> J. Bacteriol. 181, 4725-4733 (1999).</li><li>Kulkarni, H. M., Jagannadham, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biogenesis+and+multifaceted+roles+of+outer+membrane+vesicles+from+Gram-negative+bacteria.">Biogenesis and multifaceted roles of outer membrane vesicles from Gram-negative bacteria.</a> Microbiology. 160, 2109-2121 (2014).</li><li>Ellis, T. N., Kuehn, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virulence+and+immunomodulatory+roles+of+bacterial+outer+membrane+vesicles.">Virulence and immunomodulatory roles of bacterial outer membrane vesicles.</a> Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 74, 81-94 (2010).</li><li>Berleman, J., Auer, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+bacterial+outer+membrane+vesicles+for+intra-+and+interspecies+delivery.">The role of bacterial outer membrane vesicles for intra- and interspecies delivery.</a> Environ. Microbiol. 15, 347-354 (2013).</li><li>Alves, N. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+nanobioreactors-directing+enzyme+packaging+into+bacterial+outer+membrane+vesicles.">Bacterial nanobioreactors-directing enzyme packaging into bacterial outer membrane vesicles.</a> ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 7, 24963-24972 (2015).</li><li>Kim, J. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineered+bacterial+outer+membrane+vesicles+with+enhanced+functionality.">Engineered bacterial outer membrane vesicles with enhanced functionality.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 380, 51-66 (2008).</li><li>Haurat, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+sorting+of+cargo+proteins+into+bacterial+membrane+vesicles.">Selective sorting of cargo proteins into bacterial membrane vesicles.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 286, 1269-1276 (2011).</li><li>Kesty, N. C., Kuehn, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Incorporation+of+heterologous+outer+membrane+and+periplasmic+proteins+into+Escherichia+coli+outer+membrane+vesicles.">Incorporation of heterologous outer membrane and periplasmic proteins into Escherichia coli outer membrane vesicles.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 279, 2069-2076 (2003).</li><li>Zakeri, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peptide+tag+forming+a+rapid+covalent+bond+to+a+protein,+through+engineering+a+bacterial+adhesion.">Peptide tag forming a rapid covalent bond to a protein, through engineering a bacterial adhesion.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 109, e690-e697 (2012).</li><li>Li, L., Fierer, J. O., Rapoport, T. A., Howarth, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+analysis+and+optimization+of+the+covalent+association+between+SpyCatcher+and+a+peptide+tag.">Structural analysis and optimization of the covalent association between SpyCatcher and a peptide tag.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 426, 309-317 (2014).</li><li>Dumas, D. P., Durst, H. D., Landis, W. G., Raushel, F. M., Wild, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inactivation+of+organophosphorus+nerve+agents+by+the+phophotriesterase+from+Pseudomonas-Diminuta.">Inactivation of organophosphorus nerve agents by the phophotriesterase from Pseudomonas-Diminuta.</a> Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 277, 155-159 (1990).</li><li>Bigley, A. N., Raushel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Catalytic+mechanisms+for+phosphotriesterases.">Catalytic mechanisms for phosphotriesterases.</a> Biochimica et Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Proteins Proteomics. 1834, 443-453 (2013).</li><li>Minton, N. A., Murray, V. S. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+organo-phosphate+poisoning.">A review of organo-phosphate poisoning.</a> Med. Toxicol. Adverse Drug Exper. 3, 350-375 (1988).</li><li>Bigley, A. N., Xu, C., Henderson, T. J., Harvey, S. P., Raushel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymatic+neutralization+of+the+chemical+warfare+agent+VX:+Evolution+of+phosphotriesterase+for+phosphorothiolate+hydrolysis.">Enzymatic neutralization of the chemical warfare agent VX: Evolution of phosphotriesterase for phosphorothiolate hydrolysis.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 10426-10432 (2013).</li><li>Chatterjee, S. N., Chaudhuri, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gram-negative+bacteria:+the+cell+membranes.">Gram-negative bacteria: the cell membranes.</a> Outer Membrane Vesicles of Bacteria. SpringerBriefs in Microbiology. , 15-34 (2012).</li><li>Wang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+function+of+OmpA+in+Escherichia+coli.">The function of OmpA in Escherichia coli.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 292, 396-401 (2002).</li><li>Danoff, E. J., Fleming, K. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+soluble,+periplasmic+domain+of+OmpA+folds+as+an+independent+unit+and+displays+chaperone+activity+by+reducing+the+self-association+propensity+of+the+unfolded+OmpA+transmembrane+beta-barrel.">The soluble, periplasmic domain of OmpA folds as an independent unit and displays chaperone activity by reducing the self-association propensity of the unfolded OmpA transmembrane beta-barrel.</a> Biophys. Chem. 159, 194-204 (2011).</li><li>Alves, N. J., Kline, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+study+on+the+inhibition+of+plasmin+and+delta-plasmin+via+benzamidine+derivatives.">Comparative study on the inhibition of plasmin and delta-plasmin via benzamidine derivatives.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 457, 358-362 (2015).</li><li>Wang, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lyophilization+and+development+of+solid+protein+pharmaceuticals.">Lyophilization and development of solid protein pharmaceuticals.</a> Int. J. Pharm. 203, 1-60 (2000).</li><li>Goormaghtigh, E., Scarborough, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Density-based+separation+of+liposomes+by+glycerol+gradient+centrifugation.">Density-based separation of liposomes by glycerol gradient centrifugation.</a> Anal. Biochem. 159, 122-131 (1986).</li><li>Alves, N. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functionalized+liposome+purification+via+Liposome+Extruder+Purification+(LEP).">Functionalized liposome purification via Liposome Extruder Purification (LEP).</a> Analyst. 138, 4746-4751 (2013).</li><li>Mayer, L. D., StOnge, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+free+and+liposome-associated+doxorubicin+and+vincristine+levels+in+plasma+under+equilibrium+conditions+employing+ultrafiltration+techniques.">Determination of free and liposome-associated doxorubicin and vincristine levels in plasma under equilibrium conditions employing ultrafiltration techniques.</a> Anal. Biochem. 232, 149-157 (1995).</li><li>Blakeley, B. D., Chapman, A. M., McNaughton, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Split-superpositive+GFP+reassembly+is+a+fast,+efficient,+and+robust+method+for+detecting+protein-protein+interactions+in+vivo.">Split-superpositive GFP reassembly is a fast, efficient, and robust method for detecting protein-protein interactions in vivo.</a> Mol. BioSyst. 8 (2036), (2012).</li><li>De Crescenzo, G., Litowski, J. R., Hodges, R. S., O'Connor-McCourt, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+monitoring+of+the+interacation+of+two-stranded+de+novo+designed+coiled-coils:+effect+of+chain+length+on+the+kinetic+and+thermodynamic+constants+of+binding.">Real-time monitoring of the interacation of two-stranded de novo designed coiled-coils: effect of chain length on the kinetic and thermodynamic constants of binding.</a> Biochemistry. 42, 1754-1763 (2003).</li><li>Charalambous, A., Antoniades, I., Christodoulou, N., Skourides, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Split-Intein+for+simultaneous+site-specific+conjugation+of+quantum+dots+to+multiple+protein+targets+in+vivo.">Split-Intein for simultaneous site-specific conjugation of quantum dots to multiple protein targets in vivo.</a> J. Nanobiotechnol. 9, 1-14 (2011).</li><li>Lee, E. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global+proteomic+profiling+of+native+outer+membrane+vesicles+derived+fromEscherichia+coli.">Global proteomic profiling of native outer membrane vesicles derived fromEscherichia coli.</a> Proteomics. 7, 3143-3153 (2007).</li><li>Alves, N. J., Turner, K. B., Medintz, I. L., Walper, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protecting+enzymatic+function+through+directed+packaging+into+bacterial+outer+membrane+vesicles.">Protecting enzymatic function through directed packaging into bacterial outer membrane vesicles.</a> Sci. Rep. 6, 24866 (2016).</li><li>Alves, N. J., Turner, K. B., Medintz, I. L., Walper, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+therapeutic+delivery+capabilities+and+challenges+utilizing+enzyme/protein+packaged+bacterial+vesicles.">Emerging therapeutic delivery capabilities and challenges utilizing enzyme/protein packaged bacterial vesicles.</a> Ther. Delivery. 6, 873-887 (2015).</li></ol>

This protocol functions to demonstrate a representative directed packaging technique in which an enzyme of interest is produced and packaged into OMV by E. coli. As with many complex techniques there are multiple areas in which the protocol can be modified to accommodate for use in different unique applications, some of which are detailed below. While the mechanism of OMV packaging and enzyme encapsulation can be adapted to specific needs there are several steps within this protocol which are critical to its suc...

Presented here is a method for the design, production, and purification of enzyme-loaded bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMV). OMV are small, primarily unilamellar, proteoliposomes that range in size from 30-200 nm1,2. All Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria that have been studied to date have demonstrated release of either OMV or extracellular vesicles (EV) from their surface3,4. The precise mechanism by which OMV are produced have yet to be fully elucidated due to the diverse bacterial populations that secrete them as well as the varying functions that they serve. OMV have been shown to transport a wide range of cargo from small molecules, peptides, and proteins to genetic material serving a variety of complex signaling, gene translocation, and virulence functions5,6.
The exact mechanisms of OMV biogenesis are not well characterized, and appear to differ between bacterial species. Despite this fact, we have developed a method for enhancing the packaging efficiency of a recombinant protein into OMV by creating a synthetic linkage between a protein of interest and a highly abundant protein endogenous to the bacterial outer membrane and subsequent OMV. In the absence of a synthetic linkage, or artificially incorporated affinity, between the recombinantly expressed protein and the OMV the observed packaging efficiency is very low7. This result is to be expected as incorporation of the proteins within the OMV either occurs through random chance encapsulation at the precise moment of OMV formation at the bacterial surface or through directed packaging by mechanisms that are not well understood. Some success has been observed in packaging proteins simply through over expression within the periplasmic space which relies on random chance encapsulation but effective packaging is highly protein dependent with some proteins packaging at high efficiency compared to others that do not package at all8-10. By utilizing common synthetic biology techniques we sought to engineer Escherichia coli (E. coli) to simultaneously produce, package and secrete an active enzyme of interest into OMV that circumvents current knowledge limitations regarding how OMV are formed and how cargo is selected by the bacteria for packaging.
For the purposes of this application a split protein bioconjugation system was selected as the synthetic linkage of choice to facilitate directional packaging into the OMV. As the name suggests a split protein bioconjugation system is comprised of two complementary subunit domains that interact with one another. The split protein domains selected for the purposes of this protocol are referred to as the SpyCatcher (SC) and SpyTag (ST) domain and are derived from the Streptococcus pyogenes fibronectin-binding protein (FbaB)11. This split protein system is unusual in that when the two subunits are within proximity an isopeptide bond spontaneously forms between the proximal aspartic acid and lysine amino acid residues creating a covalent linkage. Isopeptide bond formation does not require the addition of chaperone proteins, catalytic enzymes, or cofactors and can readily occur at room temperature (RT) and over a wide range of physiologically relevant conditions12.
As a proof of concept, phosphotriesterase (PTE) (EC 3.1.8.1) from Brevundimonas diminuta was selected to be packaged into E. coli derived OMV13. PTE contains a binuclear Zn/Zn active site and has the ability to break down organophosphates through a hydrolysis reaction converting aryldialkylphosphates into dialkylphosphates and aryl alcohols14. Exposure to organophosphates impairs proper neurotransmitter function through inhibiting the hydrolysis of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase at neuromuscular junctions making organophosphate derived compounds extremely dangerous15. Prolonged or significant exposure to organophosphates commonly results in uncontrollable convulsions and typically causes death via asphyxiation. While PTE exhibits the highest catalytic activity toward paraoxon, a very potent insecticide, it is also capable of hydrolyzing a broad range of other pesticides and V/G type chemical nerve agents16. To facilitate OMV packaging, a bacterial plasmid was designed that encodes a gene construct that contains an inducible promoter, a periplasmic localization sequence, and a short multiple cloning site upstream of the SC gene sequence. Insertion of the PTE gene between the leader and SC sequence allowed for creation of a genetic switch that targets the PTE-SC fusion protein to the periplasmic space for OMV packaging. While the efforts described here focus on PTE, the enzyme gene is interchangeable and could readily be replaced with another gene sequence to facilitate packaging of an alternate enzyme or protein.
As the second part of the synthetic linkage, an abundant outer membrane protein (OmpA) is chosen to present the ST peptide sequence. While the choice of anchor protein can vary, it is essential that the protein has a permissive domain that presents within the periplasmic space, tolerates the fusion construct without inducing cytotoxicity, is known to be present in OMV, and does not aggregate when it is recombinantly produced. OmpA is a 37.2 kDa transmembrane porin protein that is known to be highly expressed in the bacterial outer membrane and subsequent OMV17. It is implicated in the transport of small molecules, &#60;2 nm in size, across the bacterial membrane18. Native OmpA has two structurally unique domains, a transmembrane beta barrel motif and a periplasmically soluble C-terminal portion known to interact with the peptidoglycan19. In the mutant OmpA-ST fusion designed here the C-terminal portion of OmpA was deleted and the ST was fused to the periplasmically facing N- or C-termini. Deleting the periplasmic portion of OmpA decreases the number of interactions between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan resulting in membrane destabilization leading to hyper-vesiculation7. Genomic OmpA was maintained in addition to the recombinantly expressed OmpA-ST construct to mitigate gross membrane destabilization.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="617">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">IPTG</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Always prepare fresh or aliquot and freeze.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">L-arabinose</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Can be prepared ahead of time and stored at 4C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Ampicillin</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Add immediately prior to use after media cools sufficiently from being autoclaved.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Chloramphenicol&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Add immediately prior to use after media cools sufficiently from being autoclaved.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">TB/LB Culture Media</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Other growth medias will likely work similarly.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Triton X-100</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">One of many potential suitable surfactants.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Baffled culture flasks</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Any</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">The baffles promote higher levels of aeration.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">CHES</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Fisher Bioreagents</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">BP318-100</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Optimal buffer used for paraoxon degredation (pH &#62; 8).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Paraoxon</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Chem Service</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">N-12816</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Very toxic substance to be handled carefully and disposed of properly.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:155px;">Syringe Filter 0.45 &#181;m</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">60183-221&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (30 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Filter diameter will depend on volume of sample.&#160; Low protein binding membrane is critical.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:155px;">Shaker incubator</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">New Brunswick</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">Excella E24</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Precise temperature and mixing is essential for reproducable bacterial growth.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Sorvall Culture Centrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">RC 5B PLUS</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Large volume (500 mL) culture centrifuge capable of 7,000 x g.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Sorvall Ultracentrifuge&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">WX Ultra 90</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Capable of centrifugal forces &#8805;150,000 x g.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:155px;">Ultracentrifuge Rotor</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">AH-629</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Ensure the proper rotor and tubes are used and that everything is properly balanced.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:155px;">Ultra-Clear Ultracentrifuge Tubes&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; (25 x 89 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">344058</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Ensure no stress fractures are present prior to use and that tubes are presicely balanced.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Spectrophotometer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Tecan</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">Infinite M1000</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Necessary for enzyme kinetic assays.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">DLS / particle tracking</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">NanoSight&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">LM10</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Necessary for OMV size distribution and concentration determination.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:155px;">BL21(DE3)</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Suitable bacterial expression strain.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">pET22</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">EMD Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">69744-3</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Other plasmids can be used in place of these.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">pACYC184</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">NEB</td>
			<td style="width:96px;"></td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Other plasmids can be used in place of these.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:155px;">Gel Extraction Kit</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Qiagen</td>
			<td style="width:96px;">28704</td>
			<td style="width:273px;">Example kit.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

directed protein packaging within outer membrane vesicles from escherichia coli: design, production and purification

An increasing interest in applying synthetic biology techniques to program outer membrane vesicles (OMV) are leading to some very interesting and unique applications for OMV where traditional nanoparticles are proving too difficult to synthesize. To date, all Gram-negative bacteria have been shown to produce OMV demonstrating packaging of a variety of cargo that includes small molecules, peptides, proteins and genetic material. Based on their diverse cargo, OMV are implicated in many biological processes ranging from cell-cell communication to gene transfer and delivery of virulence factors depending upon which bacteria are producing the OMV. Only recently have bacterial OMV become accessible for use across a wide range of applications through the development of techniques to control and direct packaging of recombinant proteins into OMV. This protocol describes a method for the production, purification, and use of enzyme packaged OMV providing for improved overall production of recombinant enzyme, increased vesiculation, and enhanced enzyme stability. Successful utilization of this protocol will result in the creation of a bacterial strain that simultaneously produces a recombinant protein and directs it for OMV encapsulation through creating a synthetic linkage between the recombinant protein and an outer membrane anchor protein. This protocol also details methods for isolating OMV from bacterial cultures as well as proper handling techniques and things to consider when adapting this protocol for use for other unique applications such as: pharmaceutical drug delivery, medical diagnostics, and environmental remediation.

Simultaneous expression of two recombinant proteins, as is required for the OMV packaging strategy detailed in this protocol, can be accomplished through a number of different avenues. Here, a two vector system was utilized with compatible origins of replication and separate inducible gene cassettes. For the expression of the PTE-SC construct a commercial plasmid backbone (pACY184) was engineered to include an arabinose inducible gene cassette and a twin arginine periplasmic localization ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification at JoVE.com

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

A protocol for the production, purification, and use of enzyme packaged outer membrane vesicles (OMV) providing for enhanced enzyme stability for implementation across diverse applications is presented.

Directed Protein Packaging within Outer Membrane Vesicles from Escherichia coli: Design, Production and Purification

An increasing interest in applying synthetic biology techniques to program outer membrane vesicles (OMV) are leading to some very interesting and unique ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to purify and to characterize enzyme-filled bacterial outer membrane vesicles for use as in vitro catalytic reagents. This enzyme isolation technique allows bacterial OMVs to be harvested from culture media and then employed to conduct cell-free catalysis of an organophosphate compound. Directed packaging within bacterial OMVs significantly improves enzyme stability over a range of reaction and storage conditions unlike traditional techniques that often result in a gradual and continuous loss of enzyme activity.The implications of this technique extend toward the packaging of proteins with relevance in multiple fields, such as the development of therapeutics, remediation, or the development of cell-free catalytic systems. While this protocol details purification of OMVs from E.coli, the techniques with modification to the packaging strategy could readily be used for OMV purification from a variety of microbial cell cultures. After generating outer membrane vesicles or OMVs in bacteria according to the text protocol, centrifuge the intact bacterial culture medium at 7, 000 times G and four degrees Celsius for 15 minutes.Remove and save the supernatant, taking care not to disturb the cell pellet. Then, put the supernatant through a second spin to ensure that all bacteria are removed from the medium. To remove protein aggregates and large cellular material from the saved culture medium, draw the solution into a sterile 10 to 50 milliliter syringe.Attach a 0.45 micron filter to lure the end of the syringe. Then depress the plunger and collect the flow-through in a new tube. Alternatively, vacuum-filter the culture medium by transferring it to a sterile filtration apparatus.Attach the unit to a vacuum pump or sink aspirator to generate suction. Transfer the filtered medium to a new vessel. To isolate the OMVs, transfer the filtered culture medium into ultracentrifugation tubes.Spin the medium at approximately 150, 000 times G and four degrees Celsius for three hours using a rotor that corresponds to the tubes being utilized. Immediately following ultracentrifugation to avoid loss of pellet mass, decant the OMV-depleted culture medium from the slightly brown OMV pellet which may or may not be visible by eye. The OMV pellet formed post ultracentrifugation may only be loosely adhered to the centrifugation vesicle.Care should be taken when decanting to ensure the pellet is not dislodged and lost. Save the supernatant for later dynamic light scattering to verify that the OMV particles were fully depleted from the medium. Add 0.5 to one milliliter of sterile filtered PBS, PH 7.4 or other filtered buffer as determined by experimental needs or conditions, to the pellet and allow it to incubate at room temperature for 30 minutes.Then carefully pipette the purified OMV solution mixing gently to ensure the entire pellet has been solubilized. To determine the OMV size distribution, open the DLS nano-particle tracking software for the instrument being used. Turn on the microscope and clean all the surfaces on the microscope and nano-particle tracking unit.Using a one milliliter sterile syringe, add approximately 0.5 milliliters of OMV sample directly to the viewing window of the particle tracking device through the lower fitting, taking care to cover the entire viewing window without injecting any air bubbles into the system. Place the nano-particle tracking unit on the microscope stage and turn on the laser. Then click Capture in the software.Adjust the microscope focus and stage to visualize the particles on the preview screen present in the software window. Adjust the camera shutter and camera gain until bright particles are clearly visualized on a dark background. Adjust the capture duration to 60 seconds, then click Record.When prompted, input the sample device temperature, label the sample, and save the video data at the completion of each run into a user-designated folder. Keep all analysis parameters on auto-detect mode and click Process Sequence. Record particle size distribution and concentration as particles per milliliter as determined by the software.To determine OMV protein content, use SDS-PAGE and Western Blots to asses OMV purity enzyme production and SpyCatcher or SC to SpyTag or ST cross-link efficiency. It is imperative to confirm the expression of the target enzymes and anchor protein. Expression of recombinant proteins can often be unsuccessful for a variety of reasons and successful protein production should be confirmed before OMV characterization.To carry out a phosphotriesterase or PTE activity assay, add five microliters of a one to 1, 000 dilution of paraoxon in CHES buffer to five microliters of purified OMVs in 90 microliters of CHES. Take absorbance readings at 405 nanometers and 348 nanometers every 20 seconds for approximately two hours of total reaction time to monitor the progression of the chromogenic paraoxon breakdown product p-nitrophenol. Finally, carry out data analysis according to the text protocol.Shown here are examples of the morphology of purified OMVs from E.coli via SEM. OMVs range in size from 50 to 250 nanometers as determined using particle tracking instrumentation. In this graph, the absolute OMV concentration is shown.When N terminal OMP-A-ST was co-transformed with PTE-SC in the presence of arabinose and IPTG, a significant increase in OMV production was observed compared to the control samples. The SDS-PAGE and Western Blots seen here further characterize the OMV protein content and recombinant protein expression for OMP-A-ST, native OMP-A, PTE-SC, and OMP-A-ST-PTE-SC. In this figure, overall PTE expression levels and OMV packaging efficiency in the cell pellets, UC supernatant, and purified UC OMV pellets were determined by initial velocity measurements using paraoxon as a chromogenic substrate.Here, Triton X-100 was used to verify translocation of paraoxon across intact OMV bilayers. There was little activity difference with or without detergent, indicating that paraoxon passes freely through endogenous pores on the OMV. Finally, as seen in this experiment, PTE-SC kinetic data is fit to a standard Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics equation for N terminal OMP-A-ST co-transformed with PTE-SC in the presence of a arabinose and IPTG and PTE-SC in the presence of arabinose activation.Once all genetic constructs have been made and confirmed, the enzyme packaging and OMV purification can be accomplished over a two day period. A third day is necessary to confirm and characterize OMVs whenever a new construct is developed. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember to verify safety ratings of all materials and centrifugation equipment.Additionally, it is important to verify the success of each step before proceeding to the next. The characterization steps described here can be supplemented with others to confirm enzyme packaging and OMV morphology. Protein concentration, lipid content, LPS concentration, and many other properties can vary with different payloads and adduction conditions and may influence downstream applications.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to purify and characterize enzyme-filled OMVs as well as conduct preliminary assays to assess the activity of the enzyme cargo. Don't forget that working with bacteria and chemical reagents can be extremely hazardous and precautions such as proper aseptic technique and personal protective equipment should always be used while performing this procedure.

directed-protein-packaging-within-outer-membrane-vesicles-from

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Isolation of Cognate RNA-protein Complexes from Cells Using Oligonucleotide-directed Elution

Ribonucleoprotein particles direct the biogenesis and post-transcriptional regulation of all mRNAs through distinct combinations of RNA binding proteins. They are composed of position-dependent, cis-acting RNA elements and unique combinations of RNA binding proteins. Defining the composition of a specific RNP is essential to achieving a fundamental understanding of gene regulation. The isolation of a select RNP is akin to finding a needle in a haystack. Here, we demonstrate an approach to isolate RNPs associated at the 5' untranslated region of a select mRNA in asynchronous, transfected cells. This cognate RNP has been demonstrated to be necessary for the translation of select viruses and cellular stress-response genes.
The demonstrated RNA-protein co-precipitation protocol is suitable for the downstream analysis of protein components through proteomic analyses, immunoblots, or suitable biochemical identification assays. This experimental protocol demonstrates that DHX9/RNA helicase A is enriched at the 5' terminus of cognate retroviral RNA and provides preliminary information for the identification of its association with cell stress-associated huR and junD cognate mRNAs.

This manuscript describes an approach to isolate select cognate RNPs formed in eukaryotic cells via a specific oligonucleotide-directed enrichment. We demonstrate the applicability of this approach by isolating a cognate RNP bound to the retroviral 5' untranslated region that is composed of DHX9/RNA helicase A.

Ribonucleoprotein particles direct the biogenesis and post-transcriptional regulation of all mRNAs through distinct combinations of RNA binding proteins. ...

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating these studies, reincorporation of detergent-solubilized membrane proteins into liposomes is a stochastic process where protein topology is impossible to enforce. This paper offers an alternative method to these challenging techniques that utilizes a liposome-based scaffold. Protein solubility is enhanced by deletion of the transmembrane domain, and these amino acids are replaced with a tethering moiety, such as a His-tag. This tether interacts with an anchoring group (Ni2+ coordinated by nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA(Ni2+)) for His-tagged proteins), which enforces a uniform protein topology at the surface of the liposome. An example is presented wherein the interaction between Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) with an integral membrane protein, Mitochondrial Fission Factor (Mff), was investigated using this scaffold liposome method. In this work, we have demonstrated the ability of Mff to efficiently recruit soluble Drp1 to the surface of liposomes, which stimulated its GTPase activity. Moreover, Drp1 was able to tubulate the Mff-decorated lipid template in the presence of specific lipids. This example demonstrates the effectiveness of scaffold liposomes using structural and functional assays and highlights the role of Mff in regulating Drp1 activity.

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

This paper describes a method for assessing the interactions and assemblies of integral membrane proteins in vitro with various partner factors in a lipid-proximal environment.

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating ...

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. The relative levels of different tRNAs, and the ratio of aminoacylated tRNA to total tRNA, known as the charging level, are important factors in determining the accuracy and speed of translation. Therefore, the abundance and charging levels of tRNAs are important variables to measure when studying protein synthesis, for example under various stress conditions. Here, we describe a method for harvesting tRNA and directly measuring both the relative abundance and the absolute charging level of specific tRNA species in Escherichia coli. The tRNA is harvested in such a way that the labile bond between the tRNA and its amino acid is preserved. The RNA is then subjected to gel electrophoresis and Northern blotting, which results in separation of the charged and uncharged tRNAs. The levels of specific tRNAs in different samples can be compared due to the addition of spike-in cells for normalization. Prior to RNA purification, we add 5% of E. coli cells that overproduce the rare tRNAselC to each sample. The amount of the tRNA species of interest in a sample is then normalized to the amount of tRNAselC in the same sample. Addition of spike-in cells prior to RNA purification has the advantage over addition of purified spike-in RNAs that it also accounts for any differences in cell lysis efficiency between samples.

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Here we present a method for directly measuring transfer RNA charging levels from purified Escherichia coli RNA as well as a way to compare relative levels of transfer RNA, or any other short RNA, across different samples based on the addition of spike-in cells expressing a reference gene.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. ...

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

With increasing interest in RNA biology and the use of RNA molecules in sophisticated biotechnological applications, the methods to produce large amounts of recombinant RNAs are limited. Here, we describe a protocol to produce large amounts of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli based on co-expression of a chimeric molecule that contains the RNA of interest in a viroid scaffold and a plant tRNA ligase. Viroids are relatively small, non-coding, highly base-paired circular RNAs that are infectious to higher plants. The host plant tRNA ligase is an enzyme recruited by viroids that belong to the family Avsunviroidae, such as Eggplant latent viroid (ELVd), to mediate RNA circularization during viroid replication. Although ELVd does not replicate in E. coli, an ELVd precursor is efficiently transcribed by the E. coli RNA polymerase and processed by the embedded hammerhead ribozymes in bacterial cells, and the resulting monomers are circularized by the co-expressed tRNA ligase reaching a remarkable concentration. The insertion of an RNA of interest into the ELVd scaffold enables the production of tens of milligrams of the recombinant RNA per liter of bacterial culture in regular laboratory conditions. A main fraction of the RNA product is circular, a feature that facilitates the purification of the recombinant RNA to virtual homogeneity. In this protocol, a complementary DNA (cDNA) corresponding to the RNA of interest is inserted in a particular position of the ELVd cDNA in an expression plasmid that is used, along the plasmid to co-express eggplant tRNA ligase, to transform E. coli. Co-expression of both molecules under the control of strong constitutive promoters leads to production of large amounts of the recombinant RNA. The recombinant RNA can be extracted from the bacterial cells and separated from the bulk of bacterial RNAs taking advantage of its circularity.

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

Here, we present a protocol to produce large amounts of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli by co-expressing a chimeric RNA that contains the RNA of interest in a viroid scaffold and a plant tRNA ligase. The main product is a circular molecule that facilitates purification to homogeneity.

With increasing interest in RNA biology and the use of RNA molecules in sophisticated biotechnological applications, the methods to produce large amounts ...

A Fluorescence Fluctuation Spectroscopy Assay of Protein-Protein Interactions at Cell-Cell Contacts

A variety of biological processes involves cell-cell interactions, typically mediated by proteins that interact at the interface between neighboring cells. Of interest, only few assays are capable of specifically probing such interactions directly in living cells. Here, we present an assay to measure the binding of proteins expressed at the surfaces of neighboring cells, at cell-cell contacts. This assay consists of two steps: mixing of cells expressing the proteins of interest fused to different fluorescent proteins, followed by fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy measurements at cell-cell contacts using a confocal laser scanning microscope. We demonstrate the feasibility of this assay in a biologically relevant context by measuring the interactions of the amyloid precursor-like protein 1 (APLP1) across cell-cell junctions. We provide detailed protocols on the data acquisition using fluorescence-based techniques (scanning fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy, cross-correlation number and brightness analysis) and the required instrument calibrations. Further, we discuss critical steps in the data analysis and how to identify and correct external, spurious signal variations, such as those due to photobleaching or cell movement.
In general, the presented assay is applicable to any homo- or heterotypic protein-protein interaction at cell-cell contacts, between cells of the same or different types and can be implemented on a commercial confocal laser scanning microscope. An important requirement is the stability of the system, which needs to be sufficient to probe diffusive dynamics of the proteins of interest over several minutes.

This protocol describes a fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy-based approach to investigate interactions among proteins mediating cell-cell interactions, i.e. proteins localized in cell junctions, directly in living cells. We provide detailed guidelines on instrument calibration, data acquisition and analysis, including corrections to possible artefact sources.

A variety of biological processes involves cell-cell interactions, typically mediated by proteins that interact at the interface between neighboring ...

Site-Directed Mutagenesis for In Vitro and In Vivo Experiments Exemplified with RNA Interactions in Escherichia Coli

Site-directed mutagenesis is a technique used to introduce specific mutations in DNA to investigate the interaction between small non-coding ribonucleic acid (sRNA) molecules and target messenger RNAs (mRNAs). In addition, site-directed mutagenesis is used to map specific protein binding sites to RNA. A 2-step and 3-step PCR based introduction of mutations is described. The approach is relevant to all protein-RNA and RNA-RNA interaction studies. In short, the technique relies on designing primers with the desired mutation(s), and through 2 or 3 steps of PCR synthesizing a PCR product with the mutation. The PCR product is then used for cloning. Here, we describe how to perform site-directed mutagenesis with both the 2- and 3-step approach to introduce mutations to the sRNA, McaS, and the mRNA, csgD, to investigate RNA-RNA and RNA-protein interactions. We apply this technique to investigate RNA interactions; however, the technique is applicable to all mutagenesis studies (e.g., DNA-protein interactions, amino-acid substitution/deletion/addition). It is possible to introduce any kind of mutation except for non-natural bases but the technique is only applicable if a PCR product can be used for downstream application (e.g., cloning and template for further PCR).

Site-Directed Mutagenesis for In Vitro and In Vivo Experiments Exemplified with RNA Interactions in Escherichia Coli

Site-directed mutagenesis is a technique used to introduce specific mutations in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This protocol describes how to do site-directed mutagenesis with a 2-step and 3-step polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based approach, which is applicable to any DNA fragment of interest.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a technique used to introduce specific mutations in DNA to investigate the interaction between small non-coding ribonucleic ...

Characterization of Membrane Transporters by Heterologous Expression in E. coli and Production of Membrane Vesicles

Several methods have been developed to functionally characterize novel membrane transporters. Polyamines are ubiquitous in all organisms, but polyamine exchangers in plants have not been identified. Here, we outline a method to characterize polyamine antiporters using membrane vesicles generated from the lysis of Escherichia coli cells heterologously expressing a plant antiporter. First, we heterologously expressed AtBAT1 in an E. coli strain deficient in polyamine and arginine exchange transporters. Vesicles were produced using a French press, purified by ultracentrifugation and utilized in a membrane filtration assay of labeled substrates to demonstrate the substrate specificity of the transporter. These assays demonstrated that AtBAT1 is a proton-mediated transporter of arginine, &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA), putrescine and spermidine. The mutant strain that was developed for the assay of AtBAT1 may be useful for the functional analysis of other families of plant and animal polyamine exchangers. We also hypothesize that this approach can be used to characterize many other types of antiporters, as long as these proteins can be expressed in the bacterial cell membrane. E. coli is a good system for the characterization of novel transporters, since there are multiple methods that can be employed to mutagenize native transporters.

Characterization of Membrane Transporters by Heterologous Expression in E. coli and Production of Membrane Vesicles

We describe a method for the characterization of proton-driven membrane transporters in membrane vesicle preparations produced by heterologous expression in E. coli and lysis of cells using a French press.

Several methods have been developed to functionally characterize novel membrane transporters. Polyamines are ubiquitous in all organisms, but polyamine ...

Creating Highly Specific Chemically Induced Protein Dimerization Systems by Stepwise Phage Selection of a Combinatorial Single-Domain Antibody Library

Protein dimerization events that occur only in the presence of a small-molecule ligand enable the development of small-molecule biosensors for the dissection and manipulation of biological pathways. Currently, only a limited number of chemically induced dimerization (CID) systems exist and engineering new ones with desired sensitivity and selectivity for specific small-molecule ligands remains a challenge in the field of protein engineering. We here describe a high throughput screening method, combinatorial binders-enabled selection of CID (COMBINES-CID), for the de novo engineering of CID systems applicable to a large variety of ligands. This method uses the two-step selection of a phage-displayed combinatorial nanobody library to obtain 1) &#34;anchor binders&#34; that first bind to a ligand of interest and then 2) &#34;dimerization binders&#34; that only bind to anchor binder-ligand complexes. To select anchor binders, a combinatorial library of over 109 complementarity-determining region (CDR)-randomized nanobodies is screened with a biotinylated ligand and hits are validated with the unlabeled ligand by bio-layer interferometry (BLI). To obtain dimerization binders, the nanobody library is screened with anchor binder-ligand complexes as targets for positive screening and the unbound anchor binders for negative screening. COMBINES-CID is broadly applicable to select CID binders with other immunoglobulin, non-immunoglobulin, or computationally designed scaffolds to create biosensors for in vitro and in vivo detection of drugs, metabolites, signaling molecules, etc.

Creating chemically induced protein dimerization systems with desired affinity and specificity for any given small molecule ligand would have many biological sensing and actuation applications. Here, we describe an efficient, generalizable method for de novo engineering of chemically induced dimerization systems via the stepwise selection of a phage-displayed combinatorial single-domain antibody library.

Protein dimerization events that occur only in the presence of a small-molecule ligand enable the development of small-molecule biosensors for the ...

Mechanical Separation and Protein Solubilization of the Outer and Inner Perivitelline Sublayers from Hen's Eggs

The perivitelline layer that surrounds the egg yolk plays a fundamental role in fertilization, in egg defense, and in the development of the avian embryo. It is formed by two proteinaceous sublayers that are tightly associated and formed by distinct female reproductive organs. Both structures are assumed to have their own functional specificities, which remain to be defined. To characterize the function of proteins composing each sublayer, the first challenge is to establish the conditions that would allow for the mechanical separation of these two intricate layers, while limiting any structural damage. The second step is to optimize the experimental conditions to facilitate protein solubilization from these two sublayers, for subsequent biochemical analyses. The efficiency of this approach is assessed by analyzing the protein profile of each sublayer by Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate-Poly-Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), which is expected to be distinct between the two structures. This two-step procedure remains simple; it requires classical biochemical equipment and reagents; and is compatible with further in-depth proteomics. It may also be transposed to other avian eggs for comparative biology, knowing that the structure and the composition of the perivitelline layer has been shown to have species-specific features. In addition, the non-denaturing conditions developed for sublayers separation (step 1) allow their structural analyses by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. It may also constitute the initial step for subsequent protein purification to analyze their respective biological activities and 3D structure, or to perform further immunohistochemical or functional analyses. Such studies would help to decipher the physiological function of these two sublayers, whose structural and functional integrities are determinant criteria of the reproductive success.

This article reports a simple method to isolate the outer and inner perivitelline sublayers of chicken eggs while minimizing structural alteration and to optimize protein solubilization of each sublayer for proteomic analyses.

The perivitelline layer that surrounds the egg yolk plays a fundamental role in fertilization, in egg defense, and in the development of the avian embryo. ...

Extraction and Visualization of Protein Aggregates after Treatment of Escherichia coli with a Proteotoxic Stressor

The exposure of living organisms to environmental and cellular stresses often causes disruptions in protein homeostasis and can result in protein aggregation. The accumulation of protein aggregates in bacterial cells can lead to significant alterations in the cellular phenotypic behavior, including a reduction in growth rates, stress resistance, and virulence. Several experimental procedures exist for the examination of these stressor-mediated phenotypes. This paper describes an optimized assay for the extraction and visualization of aggregated and soluble proteins from different Escherichia coli strains after treatment with a silver-ruthenium-containing antimicrobial. This compound is known to generate reactive oxygen species and causes widespread protein aggregation. 
The method combines a centrifugation-based separation of protein aggregates and soluble proteins from treated and untreated cells with subsequent separation and visualization by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Coomassie staining. This approach is simple, fast, and allows a qualitative comparison of protein aggregate formation in different E. coli strains. The methodology has a wide range of applications, including the possibility to investigate the impact of other proteotoxic antimicrobials on in vivo protein aggregation in a wide range of bacteria. Moreover, the protocol can be used to identify genes that contribute to increased resistance to proteotoxic substances. Gel bands can be used for the subsequent identification of proteins that are particularly prone to aggregation.

Extraction and Visualization of Protein Aggregates after Treatment of Escherichia coli with a Proteotoxic Stressor

This protocol describes the extraction and visualization of aggregated and soluble proteins from Escherichia coli after treatment with a proteotoxic antimicrobial. Following this procedure allows a qualitative comparison of protein aggregate formation in vivo in different bacterial strains and/or between treatments.