Name: assay to measure nucleocytoplasmic transport in real time within motor neuron-like nsc-34 cells
Uploaded: 2017-05-16T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assay to Measure Nucleocytoplasmic Transport in Real Time within Motor Neuron-like NSC-34 Cells at JoVE.com

We thank all the members of the A.I. laboratory for their helpful comments and suggestions. We would like to thank Prof. Mark Hipp (Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry) for providing us with the shuttle-GFP vector. This work was supported by grants from the Israeli Science Foundation (ISF #124/14), the Binational Science Foundation (BSF #2013325), FP7 Marie Curie Career Integration Grant (CIG # 333794), and The National Institute for Psychobiology in Israel (NIPI #b133-14/15).

1. Cell Line Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Thaw approximately 1,000,000 mouse neuroblastoma spinal cord cells (NSC-34 cells) that were stored in a liquid nitrogen container. Use a 37 &#176;C water incubator until the cells are fully thawed.</li>
	<li>Add fresh, warm medium (DMEM medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 1% L-glutamine, and 1% pen-strep antibiotics).</li>
	<li>Centrifuge thawed cells (SL16R) at 500 x g for 5 min, forming a cell pellet. Discard the medium and add 1 mL of new medium for the cell resuspensio...

<ol>
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D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GGGGCC+repeat+expansion+in+C9orf72+compromises+nucleocytoplasmic+transport.">GGGGCC repeat expansion in C9orf72 compromises nucleocytoplasmic transport.</a> Nature. 525, 129-133 (2015).</li><li>Jovicic, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modifiers+of+C9orf72+dipeptide+repeat+toxicity+connect+nucleocytoplasmic+transport+defects+to+FTD/ALS.">Modifiers of C9orf72 dipeptide repeat toxicity connect nucleocytoplasmic transport defects to FTD/ALS.</a> Nat Neurosci. 18, 1226-1229 (2015).</li><li>Kwon, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poly-dipeptides+encoded+by+the+C9orf72+repeats+bind+nucleoli,+impede+RNA+biogenesis,+and+kill+cells.">Poly-dipeptides encoded by the C9orf72 repeats bind nucleoli, impede RNA biogenesis, and kill cells.</a> Science. 345, 1139-1145 (2014).</li><li>Rossi, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+accumulation+of+mRNAs+underlies+G4C2-repeat-induced+translational+repression+in+a+cellular+model+of+C9orf72+ALS.">Nuclear accumulation of mRNAs underlies G4C2-repeat-induced translational repression in a cellular model of C9orf72 ALS.</a> J Cell Sci. 128, 1787-1799 (2015).</li><li>Shi, K. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toxic+PRn+poly-dipeptides+encoded+by+the+C9orf72+repeat+expansion+block+nuclear+import+and+export.">Toxic PRn poly-dipeptides encoded by the C9orf72 repeat expansion block nuclear import and export.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. , (2017).</li><li>Zhang, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+C9orf72+repeat+expansion+disrupts+nucleocytoplasmic+transport.">The C9orf72 repeat expansion disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport.</a> Nature. 525, 56-61 (2015).</li><li>Zhang, Y. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=C9ORF72+poly(GA)+aggregates+sequester+and+impair+HR23+and+nucleocytoplasmic+transport+proteins.">C9ORF72 poly(GA) aggregates sequester and impair HR23 and nucleocytoplasmic transport proteins.</a> Nat Neurosci. 19, 668-677 (2016).</li><li>Cleveland, D. W., Rothstein, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+Charcot+to+Lou+Gehrig:+deciphering+selective+motor+neuron+death+in+ALS.">From Charcot to Lou Gehrig: deciphering selective motor neuron death in ALS.</a> Nat Rev Neurosci. 2, 806-819 (2001).</li><li>DeJesus-Hernandez, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expanded+GGGGCC+hexanucleotide+repeat+in+noncoding+region+of+C9ORF72+causes+chromosome+9p-linked+FTD+and+ALS.">Expanded GGGGCC hexanucleotide repeat in noncoding region of C9ORF72 causes chromosome 9p-linked FTD and ALS.</a> Neuron. 72, 245-256 (2011).</li><li>Renton, A. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+hexanucleotide+repeat+expansion+in+C9ORF72+is+the+cause+of+chromosome+9p21-linked+ALS-FTD.">A hexanucleotide repeat expansion in C9ORF72 is the cause of chromosome 9p21-linked ALS-FTD.</a> Neuron. 72, 257-268 (2011).</li><li>Boeve, B. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+frontotemporal+dementia+and/or+amyotrophic+lateral+sclerosis+associated+with+the+GGGGCC+repeat+expansion+in+C9ORF72.">Characterization of frontotemporal dementia and/or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis associated with the GGGGCC repeat expansion in C9ORF72.</a> Brain. 135, 765-783 (2012).</li><li>Haeusler, A. R., Donnelly, C. J., Rothstein, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+expanding+biology+of+the+C9orf72+nucleotide+repeat+expansion+in+neurodegenerative+disease.">The expanding biology of the C9orf72 nucleotide repeat expansion in neurodegenerative disease.</a> Nat Rev Neurosci. 17, 383-395 (2016).</li><li>Woerner, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytoplasmic+protein+aggregates+interfere+with+nucleocytoplasmic+transport+of+protein+and+RNA.">Cytoplasmic protein aggregates interfere with nucleocytoplasmic transport of protein and RNA.</a> Science. 351, 173-176 (2016).</li><li>Tao, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nucleolar+stress+and+impaired+stress+granule+formation+contribute+to+C9orf72+RAN+translation-induced+cytotoxicity.">Nucleolar stress and impaired stress granule formation contribute to C9orf72 RAN translation-induced cytotoxicity.</a> Hum Mol Genet. 24, 2426-2441 (2015).</li><li>Wen, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antisense+proline-arginine+RAN+dipeptides+linked+to+C9ORF72-ALS/FTD+form+toxic+nuclear+aggregates+that+initiate+in+vitro+and+in+vivo+neuronal+death.">Antisense proline-arginine RAN dipeptides linked to C9ORF72-ALS/FTD form toxic nuclear aggregates that initiate in vitro and in vivo neuronal death.</a> Neuron. 84, 1213-1225 (2014).</li></ol>

This protocol demonstrates a highly sensitive and quantitative new assay to evaluate minute changes in nucleocytoplasmic transport. Using this system, it is possible to observe and measure nucleocytoplasmic transport and its dysfunction in real time, not only large defects that result in dramatic changes in protein distribution. This assay not only has a sensitivity advantage, but it also requires little preparation, is inexpensive, and is a very easy and low-engagement assay.
To test the effi...

The nuclear pore complex (NPC) controls the import and export of large molecules into and out of the cell nucleus. In contrast to small molecules, which can enter the nucleus without regulation1, the transport of larger molecules is strongly controlled by the NPC. These large molecules, such as proteins and RNA, associate with transport factors, including importins and exportins, to be imported and exported from the nucleus2. In order to be imported, proteins must contain a small peptide motif, generally called a nuclear localization signal (NLS), which is bound by importins2. These sequences of amino acids act as a tag and are diverse in composition3,4. Proteins can be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm due to their association with exportins, which bind a signal sequence, generally called a nuclear export signal (NES)2. Both importins and exportins are able to transport their cargo due to the regulation of the small Ras related nuclear protein GTPase (Ran)2. Ran has been shown to exist in different conformational states depending on whether it is bound to GTP or GDP. When bound to GTP, Ran can bind to importins or exportins. Upon binding to RanGTP, importins release their cargo, while exportins must bind RanGTP to form a complex with their export cargo. The dominant nucleotide binding state of Ran depends on its location in the nucleus (RanGTP) or the cytoplasm (RanGDP).
Recently, a number of studies have shown a connection between impairments in the nucleocytoplasmic pathway and both amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD)5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. ALS is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease affecting both upper and lower motor neurons (MNs)13 and resulting in paralysis and ultimately in death, within 2-5 years on average. Most cases of ALS are classified as sporadic (SALS), lacking any apparent genetic linkage, but 10% are inherited in a dominant manner (familial ALS; FALS). Recently, hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HREs) in the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) gene were identified14,15 as a genetic cause of ALS and FTD. These mutants account for 30-40% of FALS cases16, and different studies have contended that they cause toxicity by affecting nucleocytoplasmic transport5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12.
These studies have mostly shown the final outcomes and manifestations of HREs on nucleocytoplasmic transport, but they do not demonstrate nucleocytoplasmic disruption in real time. As a result, only severe nucleocytoplasmic transport deficiency has been evaluated11,17,18.
This protocol describes a new and very sensitive assay to evaluate and quantify nucleocytoplasmic transport dysfunction in real time. The rate of import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein (shuttle-GFP) can be quantified in real time using fluorescent microscopy. This is done using an exportin inhibitor, as described previously18, thus allowing the shuttle-GFP only to enter the nucleus. Using florescent microscopy and a software capable of quantifying fluorescent changes in real time, it is possible to quantify gradual changes in the fluorescence intensity of the shuttle-GFP, located in the nucleus. As a result, a Michaelis-Menten-like saturation curve of the fluorescence-to-time axis, representing the amount of nuclear shuttle-GFP at any given time, can be made. By using the initial linear rate of the curves, it is possible to generate a slope, which represents the rate of entry into the nucleus before fluorescence saturation.
To validate the assay, the translated C9orf72 dipeptide repeats, poly(GR) and poly(PR), which have been previously reported to disrupt nucleocytoplasmic transport, were used5,7,8,10,12. Using this assay, a 50% decrease in the nuclear import rate was observed compared to the control. Using this system, minute changes in nucleocytoplasmic transport can be examined. Moreover, the ability of different factors to rescue a nucleocytoplasmic transport defect can be determined.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse Motor Neuron-Like hybrid Cell Line (NSC-34)</td>
			<td>tebu-bio</td>
			<td>CLU140-A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM 4.5g/L L-glucose</td>
			<td>Biological Industries</td>
			<td>01-055-1A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS European Grade</td>
			<td>Biological Industries</td>
			<td>04-007-1A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SL 16R Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>75004030</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermo Forma Series ii Water Jacketed CO2 Incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>3111</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cover glass 12mm dia. thick 0.13-0.17mm</td>
			<td>Bar Naor LTD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td><a href="https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/R0531">TurboFect Transfection Reagent</a></td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td><a href="https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/R0531">R0531</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axiovert 100 inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IMAGING WORKBENCH 2&#160;</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leptomycin B</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>L2913</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td>Biological Industries</td>
			<td>02-023-1A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Homogenizer motor/control/chuck/90-degree clamp</td>
			<td>Glas-Col</td>
			<td>099C K5424CE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MicroCL 17R Centrifuge, Refrigerated</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>75002455</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assay to measure nucleocytoplasmic transport in real time within motor neuron-like nsc-34 cells

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a connection between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and impairments in the nucleocytoplasmic pathway. ALS is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the motor neurons and resulting in paralysis and ultimately in death, within 2-5 years on average. Most cases of ALS are sporadic, lacking any apparent genetic linkage, but 10% are inherited in a dominant manner. Recently, hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HREs) in the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) gene were identified as a genetic cause of ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Importantly, different groups have recently proposed that these mutants affect nucleocytoplasmic transport. These studies have mostly shown the final outcome and manifestations caused by HREs on nucleocytoplasmic transport, but they do not demonstrate nuclear transport dysfunction in real time. As a result, only severe nucleocytoplasmic transport deficiency can be determined, mostly due to high overexpression or exogenous protein insertion. 
This protocol describes a new and very sensitive assay to evaluate and quantify nucleocytoplasmic transport dysfunction in real time. The rate of import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein (shuttle-GFP) can be quantified in real time using fluorescent microscopy. This is performed by using an exportin inhibitor, thus allowing the shuttle GFP only to enter the nucleus. To validate the assay, the C9orf72 HRE translated dipeptide repeats, poly(GR) and poly(PR), which have been previously shown to disrupt nucleocytoplasmic transport, were used. Using the described assay, a 50% decrease in the nuclear import rate was observed compared to the control. Using this system, minute changes in nucleocytoplasmic transport can be examined and the ability of different factors to rescue (even partially) a nucleocytoplasmic transport defect can be determined.

Using the procedure presented here, motor neuron-like NSC-34 cells were transfected with a NLS-NES-GFP (shuttle-GFP) protein. This protein, which has NLS and NES signal sequences (Figure 1), can shuttle between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Generic GFP can enter or exit the nucleus in the absence of any localization signal tag only by diffusion and is therefore distributed evenly between the nucleus and the cytoplasm (Figure 2A). In contrast, the shuttle...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assay to Measure Nucleocytoplasmic Transport in Real Time within Motor Neuron-like NSC-34 Cells at JoVE.com

Assay to Measure Nucleocytoplasmic Transport in Real Time within Motor Neuron-like NSC-34 Cells

This protocol describes a method to sensitively measure the nucleocytoplasmic transport rate within motor neuron-like NSC-34 cells by quantifying the real-time change in the nuclear import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein.

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a ...

The overall goal of this assay is to detect minute changes in the nucleocytoplasmic transport rate of cells in real time in the absence or presence of potential transport rate-suppressive molecules. This method can help answer key questions about specific neurogenetic diseases such as ALS, that have been proposed to negatively impact nucleocytoplasmic transport. Some advantages of this technique are that it is highly sensitive and quantitative and that it allows the real-time analysis of minute changes in the nucleocytoplasmic transport rate.Demonstrating the procedure will be Tom Shani, a graduate student from my laboratory. Begin by thawing approximately one times 10 to the sixth mouse neuroblastoma spinal cord cells from liquid nitrogen storage in a 37 degree Celsius water bath. When the cells are fully thawed, collect them by centrifugation, and resuspend the pellet in one milliliter of fresh medium.Then transfer the cells into 15-milliliter flask containing five milliliters of cell culture medium for an overnight incubation at 37 degrees Celsius in 5%carbon dioxide. When the cells reach 90%confluency, place eight uncoated cover slips into individual 60-millimeter culture dishes and sterilize the cover slips with 70%ethanol. Dry the cover slips under a UV light for 30 minutes.When the glass is dry, wash the cover slips with fresh medium to remove the residual ethanol. When the cover slips are ready, dissociate the neuroblastoma cells with trypsin-EDTA for about 15 seconds in the cell culture incubator. Then rest the sells for one minute at room temperature.Collect the cells by centrifugation. After counting, resuspend the pellet at a 3.5 times 10 to the fifth cells per three milliliters of medium concentration and seed three milliliters of cells per dish. Then place the cultures in the incubator for 24 hours to allow the cells to attach to the cover slips.The next day, add two micrograms of each transfection plasmid to one sterile microcentrifuge tube containing 300 microliters of DMEM medium per 60-millimeter culture dish. Add four microliters of commercial transfection reagent per two micrograms of plasmid to each tube. And vortex the DNA transfection solutions.Alternatively in cell populations where the shuttle-GFP nucleus to cytoplasmid ratio is close to a one-to-one ratio, the cells can be pre-labeled with a nuclear marker prior to their transfection to facilitate nuclear distinction. After a 25 minute incubation at room temperature, add the plasmids to each dish. And gently stir to obtain a homogenous solution.Return the cultures to the incubator for another 48 hours. Then attach the coverslips to a coverslip holder for a gentle PBS wash to remove any detached dead cells. Next place the coverslip under an inverted microscope and identify a patch of 20 to 30 GFP-expressing cells in which the nuclei are clearly defined.Use the imaging software to mark the nuclei within the patch. Then add 200 microliters of exportin-1 inhibitor leptomycin B buffer dropwise to the coverslip and quantify the fluorescence intensity of the marked nuclei in three-second intervals for around 400 to 500 seconds. After all the cover slips have been imaged, normalize the fluorescence intensity of each cell nuclei and generate a fluorescence intensity curve representing the changes in nuclear fluorescence as a function of time for each cell patch.Then analyze the maximum reaction velocity of the slope of each cell patch derived from three to five independent experiments to generate one slope per experimental group. For protein expression validation 48 hours after transfection, place the culture dishes on ice and wash the cells two times with PBS. Treat the cells in each dish with 200 to 400 microliters of lysis buffer.And use a cell scraper to remove the cells from the cover slips. Transfer the detached cells from each plate into individual microcentrifuge tubes. And further dissociate the cells with a homogenizer under ice.After one minute, pellet the homogenized cell pieces by centrifugation and measure the protein concentration in each supernatant by Bradford assay. Then pool 30 to 70 micrograms of protein per group into new microcentrifuge tubes. Store the tubes negative 20 degrees Celsius until SDS page protein expression analysis.Generic GFP can enter or exit the cell nucleus in the absence of a localization signal tag by diffusion only, resulting in an even distribution of the protein between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In contrast, shuttle-GFP protein is mostly observed in the cytoplasm due to the nuclear export and nuclear localization signals directing its dispersion. Treatment with leptomycin B, a GFP protein export inhibitor, induces the accumulation of shuttle-GFP within the nucleus, allowing the shuttle-GFP import rate to be measured.These changes in the nuclear fluorescence intensity in the absence or presence of protein export inhibition can then be quantified in real time to assess the nuclear cytoplasmic transport rate of the shuttle-GFP overtime. To confirm that the activity of nucleolar stress-inducing dipeptide repeat proteins is not affected by protein export inhibition GFP, GFP-tagged dipeptide repeat proteins were visualized by fluorescence microscopy after leptomycin B treatment revealing poly(PR)expression in the nucleus as inclusions only, excluding the possibility of the generation of a false positive nuclear import signal. Poly(GR)expression however was observed homogenously in the cytosol and as inclusions within the nucleus.Indeed, neuroblastoma spinal cord cell transfection with poly(GR)only followed by leptmycin B treatment results in no observed shuttle movement of the expressed poly(GR)Further analysis of the nuclear cytoplasmic shuttle-GFP transport rate reveals the singular expression of either poly(PR)or poly(GR)dipeptide repeats indicating an about 50%decrease in the total nuclear import rate compared to control empty plasmid-transfected cells. We first had the idea for this method when we tried to find the quantitative assay for detecting small changes in nucleocytoplasmic dysfunction in real time. Once mastered, the microscopic analysis of the cells can be performed in approximately 10 minutes per coverslip.The data analysis for each coverslip can be completed in a few minutes. After its development, this technique paves the way for researchers in the field of neurodegenerative diseases to explore defects in nucleocytoplasmic transport using cellular models. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to detect and quantify minute changes in cellular nucleocytoplasmic transport rate in real time.

assay-to-measure-nucleocytoplasmic-transport-real-time-within-motor

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Motor Nerve Transection and Time-lapse Imaging of Glial Cell Behaviors in Live Zebrafish

The nervous system is often described as a hard-wired component of the body even though it is a considerably fluid organ system that reacts to external stimuli in a consistent, stereotyped manner, while maintaining incredible flexibility and plasticity. Unlike the central nervous system (CNS), the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is capable of significant repair, but we have only just begun to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern this phenomenon. Using zebrafish as a model system, we have the unprecedented opportunity to couple regenerative studies with in vivo imaging and genetic manipulation. Peripheral nerves are composed of axons surrounded by layers of glia and connective tissue. Axons are ensheathed by myelinating or non-myelinating Schwann cells, which are in turn wrapped into a fascicle by a cellular sheath called the perineurium. Following an injury, adult peripheral nerves have the remarkable capacity to remove damaged axonal debris and re-innervate targets. To investigate the roles of all peripheral glia in PNS regeneration, we describe here an axon transection assay that uses a commercially available nitrogen-pumped dye laser to axotomize motor nerves in live transgenic zebrafish. We further describe the methods to couple these experiments to time-lapse imaging of injured and control nerves. This experimental paradigm can be used to not only assess the role that glia play in nerve regeneration, but can also be the platform for elucidating the molecular mechanisms that govern nervous system repair.

Although the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is capable of significant repair after injury, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern this phenomenon. Using live, transgenic zebrafish and a reproducible nerve transection assay, we can study dynamic glial cell behaviors during nerve degeneration and regeneration.

The  nervous system is often described as a hard-wired component of the body even  though it is a considerably fluid organ system that reacts to external ...

Using Informational Connectivity to Measure the Synchronous Emergence of fMRI Multi-voxel Information Across Time

It is now appreciated that condition-relevant information can be present within distributed patterns of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain activity, even for conditions with similar levels of univariate activation. Multi-voxel pattern (MVP) analysis has been used to decode this information with great success. FMRI investigators also often seek to understand how brain regions interact in interconnected networks, and use functional connectivity (FC) to identify regions that have correlated responses over time. Just as univariate analyses can be insensitive to information in MVPs, FC may not fully characterize the brain networks that process conditions with characteristic MVP signatures. The method described here, informational connectivity (IC), can identify regions with correlated changes in MVP-discriminability across time, revealing connectivity that is not accessible to FC. The method can be exploratory, using searchlights to identify seed-connected areas, or planned, between pre-selected regions-of-interest. The results can elucidate networks of regions that process MVP-related conditions, can breakdown MVPA searchlight maps into separate networks, or can be compared across tasks and patient groups.

Informational connectivity measures the correspondence between time courses of multi-voxel information across different brain regions. Multi-voxel pattern discriminability time series are extracted from regions and compared, revealing networks that are not identified in a typical functional connectivity approach.

It is now appreciated that condition-relevant information can be present within distributed patterns of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain ...

Real-time Imaging of Axonal Transport of Quantum Dot-labeled BDNF in Primary Neurons

BDNF plays an important role in several facets of neuronal survival, differentiation, and function. Structural and functional deficits in axons are increasingly viewed as an early feature of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (AD) and Huntington&#8217;s disease (HD). As yet unclear is the mechanism(s) by which axonal injury is induced. We reported the development of a novel technique to produce biologically active, monobiotinylated BDNF (mBtBDNF) that can be used to trace axonal transport of BDNF. Quantum dot-labeled BDNF (QD-BDNF) was produced by conjugating quantum dot 655 to mBtBDNF. A microfluidic device was used to isolate axons from neuron cell bodies. Addition of QD-BDNF to the axonal compartment allowed live imaging of BDNF transport in axons. We demonstrated that QD-BDNF moved essentially exclusively retrogradely, with very few pauses, at a moving velocity of around 1.06 &#956;m/sec. This system can be used to investigate mechanisms of disrupted axonal function in AD or HD, as well as other degenerative disorders.

Axonal transport of BDNF, a neurotrophic factor, is critical for the survival and function of several neuronal populations. Some degenerative disorders are marked by disruption of axonal structure and function. We demonstrated the techniques used to examine live trafficking of QD-BDNF in microfluidic chambers using primary neurons.

BDNF plays an important role in several facets of neuronal survival, differentiation, and function. Structural and functional deficits in axons are ...

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal degeneration. Lack of growth cone formation, regeneration, and loss of additional myelinated axonal projections within the spinal cord greatly limits neurological recovery following injury. To assess how central myelinated axons of the spinal cord respond to injury, we developed an ex vivo living spinal cord model utilizing transgenic mice that express yellow fluorescent protein in axons and a focal and highly reproducible laser-induced spinal cord injury to document the fate of axons and myelin (lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red) over time using two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Dynamic processes such as acute axonal injury, axonal retraction, and myelin degeneration are best studied in real-time. However, the non-focal nature of contusion-based injuries and movement artifacts encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution microscopy challenging. The ex vivo spinal cord model described here mimics several aspects of clinically relevant contusion/compression-induced axonal pathologies including axonal swelling, spheroid formation, axonal transection, and peri-axonal swelling providing a useful model to study these dynamic processes in real-time. Major advantages of this model are excellent spatiotemporal resolution that allows differentiation between the primary insult that directly injures axons and secondary injury mechanisms; controlled infusion of reagents directly to the perfusate bathing the cord; precise alterations of the environmental milieu (e.g., calcium, sodium ions, known contributors to axonal injury, but near impossible to manipulate in vivo); and murine models also offer an advantage as they provide an opportunity to visualize and manipulate genetically identified cell populations and subcellular structures. Here, we describe how to isolate and image the living spinal cord from mice to capture dynamics of acute axonal injury.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

Real-time Electrophysiology: Using Closed-loop Protocols to Probe Neuronal Dynamics and Beyond

Experimental neuroscience is witnessing an increased interest in the development and application of novel and often complex, closed-loop protocols, where the stimulus applied depends in real-time on the response of the system. Recent applications range from the implementation of virtual reality systems for studying motor responses both in mice1 and in zebrafish2, to control of seizures following cortical stroke using optogenetics3. A key advantage of closed-loop techniques resides in the capability of probing higher dimensional properties that are not directly accessible or that depend on multiple variables, such as neuronal excitability4 and reliability, while at the same time maximizing the experimental throughput. In this contribution and in the context of cellular electrophysiology, we describe how to apply a variety of closed-loop protocols to the study of the response properties of pyramidal cortical neurons, recorded intracellularly with the patch clamp technique in acute brain slices from the somatosensory cortex of juvenile rats. As no commercially available or open source software provides all the features required for efficiently performing the experiments described here, a new software toolbox called LCG5 was developed, whose modular structure maximizes reuse of computer code and facilitates the implementation of novel experimental paradigms. Stimulation waveforms are specified using a compact meta-description and full experimental protocols are described in text-based configuration files. Additionally, LCG has a command-line interface that is suited for repetition of trials and automation of experimental protocols.

Closed-loop protocols are becoming increasingly widespread in modern day electrophysiology. We present a simple, versatile and inexpensive way to perform complex electrophysiological protocols in cortical pyramidal neurons in vitro, using a desktop computer and a digital acquisition board.

Experimental neuroscience is witnessing an increased interest in the development and application of novel and often complex, closed-loop protocols, where ...

Real-time Iontophoresis with Tetramethylammonium to Quantify Volume Fraction and Tortuosity of Brain Extracellular Space

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the extracellular space (ECS) of the living brain. The ECS surrounds all brain cells and contains both interstitial fluid and extracellular matrix. The transport of many substances required for brain activity, including neurotransmitters, hormones, and nutrients, occurs by diffusion through the ECS. Changes in the volume and geometry of this space occur during normal brain processes, like sleep, and pathological conditions, like ischemia. However, the structure and regulation of brain ECS, particularly in diseased states, remains largely unexplored. The RTI method measures two physical parameters of living brain: volume fraction and tortuosity. Volume fraction is the proportion of tissue volume occupied by ECS. Tortuosity is a measure of the relative hindrance a substance encounters when diffusing through a brain region as compared to a medium with no obstructions. In RTI, an inert molecule is pulsed from a source microelectrode into the brain ECS. As molecules diffuse away from this source, the changing concentration of the ion is measured over time using an ion-selective microelectrode positioned roughly 100 &#181;m away. From the resulting diffusion curve, both volume fraction and tortuosity can be calculated. This technique has been used in brain slices from multiple species (including humans) and in vivo to study acute and chronic changes to ECS. Unlike other methods, RTI can be used to examine both reversible and irreversible changes to the brain ECS in real time.

This protocol describes real-time iontophoresis, a method that measures physical parameters of the extracellular space (ECS) of living brains. The diffusion of an inert molecule released into the ECS is used to calculate the ECS volume fraction and tortuosity. It is ideal for studying acute reversible changes to brain ECS.

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the ...

Live-cell Measurement of Odorant Receptor Activation Using a Real-time cAMP Assay

The enormous sizes of the mammalian odorant receptor (OR) families present difficulties to find their cognate ligands among numerous volatile chemicals. To efficiently and accurately deorphanize ORs, we combine the use of a heterologous cell line to express mammalian ORs and a genetically modified biosensor plasmid to measure cAMP production downstream of OR activation in real time. This assay can be used to screen odorants against ORs and vice versa. Positive odorant-receptor interactions from the screens can be subsequently confirmed by testing against various odor concentrations, generating concentration-response curves. Here we used this method to perform a high-throughput screening of an odorous compound against a human OR library expressed in Hana3A cells and confirmed that the positively-responding receptor is the cognate receptor for the compound of interest. We found this high-throughput detection method to be efficient and reliable in assessing OR activation and our data provide an example of its potential use in OR functional studies.

Characterizing the function of odorant receptors serves an indispensable part in the deorphanization process. We describe a method to measure the activation of odorant receptors in real time using a cAMP assay.

The enormous sizes of the mammalian odorant receptor (OR) families present difficulties to find their cognate ligands among numerous volatile chemicals. ...

Assay Development for High Content Quantification of Sod1 Mutant Protein Aggregate Formation in Living Cells

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that can be caused by inherited mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1). The structural instability of SOD1 and the detection of SOD1-positive inclusions in familial-ALS patients supports a potential causal role for misfolded and/or aggregated SOD1 in ALS pathology. In this study, we describe the development of a cell-based assay designed to quantify the dynamics of SOD1 aggregation in living cells by high content screening approaches. Using lentiviral vectors, we generated stable cell lines expressing wild-type and mutant A4V SOD1 tagged with yellow fluorescent protein and found that both proteins were expressed in the cytosol without any sign of aggregation. Interestingly, only SOD1 A4V stably expressed in HEK-293, but not in U2OS or SH-SY5Y cell lines, formed aggregates upon proteasome inhibitor treatment. We show that it is possible to quantify aggregation based on dose-response analysis of various proteasome inhibitors, and to track aggregate-formation kinetics by time-lapse microscopy. Our approach introduces the possibility of quantifying the effect of ALS mutations on the role of SOD1 in aggregate formation as well as screening for small molecules that prevent SOD1 A4V aggregation.

We describe a method to quantify the aggregation of misfolded proteins. Our protocol details lentiviral induced stable cell line generation, automated confocal imaging, and image analysis of protein aggregates. As an illustrative application, we studied the effect of small molecules in promoting SOD1 aggregation in a time- and dose-dependent manner.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that can be caused by inherited mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc ...

Axonal Transport of Organelles in Motor Neuron Cultures using Microfluidic Chambers System

Motor neurons (MNs) are highly polarized cells with very long axons. Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for MN health, contributing to neuronal growth, development, and survival. We describe a detailed method for the use of microfluidic chambers (MFCs) for tracking axonal transport of fluorescently labeled organelles in MN axons. This method is rapid, relatively inexpensive, and allows for the monitoring of intracellular cues in space and time. We describe a step by step protocol for: 1) Fabrication of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) MFCs; 2) Plating of ventral spinal cord explants and MN dissociated culture in MFCs; 3) Labeling of mitochondria and acidic compartments followed by live confocal imagining; 4) Manual and semiautomated axonal transport analysis. Lastly, we demonstrate a difference in the transport of mitochondria and acidic compartments of HB9::GFP ventral spinal cord explant axons as a proof of the system validity. Altogether, this protocol provides an efficient tool for studying the axonal transport of various axonal components, as well as a simplified manual for MFC usage to help discover spatial experimental possibilities.

Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for motor neuron health. In this protocol we provide a detailed method for tracking the axonal transport of acidic compartments and mitochondria in motor neuron axons using microfluidic chambers.

Motor neurons (MNs) are highly polarized cells with very long axons. Axonal transport is a crucial mechanism for MN health, contributing to neuronal ...

Real-Time fMRI Brain Mapping in Animals

Dynamic fMRI responses vary largely according to the physiological conditions of animals either under anesthesia or in awake states. We developed a real-time fMRI platform to guide experimenters to monitor fMRI responses instantaneously during acquisition, which can be used to modify the physiology of animals to achieve desired hemodynamic responses in animal brains. The real-time fMRI set-up is based on a 14.1T preclinical MRI system, enabling the real-time mapping of dynamic fMRI responses in the primary forepaw somatosensory cortex (FP-S1) of anesthetized rats. Instead of a retrospective analysis to investigate confounding sources leading to the variability of fMRI signals, the real-time fMRI platform provides a more effective scheme to identify dynamic fMRI responses using customized macro-functions and a common neuroimage analysis software in the MRI system. Also, it provides immediate troubleshooting feasibility and a real-time biofeedback stimulation paradigm for brain functional studies in animals.

Animal brain functional mapping can benefit from the real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experimental set-up. Using the latest software implemented in the animal MRI system, we established a real-time monitoring platform for small animal fMRI.

Dynamic fMRI responses vary largely according to the physiological conditions of animals either under anesthesia or in awake states. We developed a ...