Name: analyzing spatial learning and prosocial behavior in mice using the barnes maze and damsel-in-distress paradigms
Uploaded: 2018-11-17T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analyzing Spatial Learning and Prosocial Behavior in Mice Using the Barnes Maze and Damsel-in-Distress Paradigms at JoVE.com

We at Hampden-Sydney College give acknowledgement and appreciation to Sean Walden, Zach Leitner, Hunter Lee, and Anton Kheirani for their involvement in testing the protocols for the Barnes maze and Damsel-in-Distress experiments. We would also like to thank James Foster at Randolph-Macon College for the construction of the Barnes maze and the Randolph-Macon College Department of Biology for providing testing space.

All methods described here were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Hampden-Sydney College or Randolph-Macon College (where some work was previously performed).
1. Basic Housing of Mice
<ol>
	<li>House the mice in plastic cages with solid bottoms and sides, and a layer of soft bedding and nesting material such as paper shredding. Use bedding that is composed of shredded corn cobs or wood shavings, and ensure that the bedding is changed regularly for sanitat...

<ol>
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The Barnes maze and the Damsel-in-distress experiments are inexpensive, quick, and relatively easy ways to evaluate spatial learning, locomotor activity, and prosocial behavior in mice. Other advantages include the absence of overt stressors, pain, or food restriction for the animal. Like most learning/memory paradigms, a disadvantage of the Barnes maze is the number of trials required for the animals to learn where the target hole is located and enter.
Data collection:
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The purpose of this protocol is to measure spatial learning and memory in mice using the Barnes maze as well as social responsiveness and locomotion using the Damsel-in-Distress paradigm. Commonly used spatial learning and memory tests for rodents include the radial arm maze, which measures a mouse&#39;s ability to find hidden food in one arm of a multi-spoked apparatus, and the Morris water maze, which places a mouse in a large tub or pool of water and assesses how long it takes to find a hidden underwater platform. Typically, training for these paradigms spans multiple trials and allows the measuring of both learning acquisition rates and retention through short term and long-term memory trials.
Although the radial-arm maze and Morris water maze are reliable ways to test memory in rodents, they present complications for some researchers. Both mazes use deprivation or strong aversive stimuli as reinforcement1. The radial arm maze uses food deprivation to ensure that rodents are properly motivated to find a food reward. In the Morris water maze, the effects of stress induced by a forced swim may alter results in the mice2.
The Barnes maze is an alternative spatial awareness task that requires rodents to learn the position of a hole in order to escape the bright, open maze surface3. Weak aversive stimulation (light or sound) is then applied to increase the likelihood that mice will escape from the platform. The Barnes maze does not require food deprivation, so the amount of animal preparation is less than in the radial arm maze. It can be used without conflict by researchers who are investigating behaviors or molecules associated with eating, hormonal regulation, or hypothalamic pathways.
The Barnes maze also has advantages over the Morris water maze. It is less stressful than the Morris water maze, causing less elevated levels of corticosterone in mice4. In addition, it is much simpler to assemble and requires less dedicated space during the testing procedure and storage.
The Damsel-in-Distress assay is a simple two-part experiment that can assess locomotor activity followed by prosocial behavior. The Damsel-in-Distress assay is designed to assess exploratory behaviors and social responsiveness of a male rodent in response to an entrapped female rodent. A commonly used method to assess sociability (as well as preference for social novelty) is the use of Crawley&#39;s three-chamber sociability test, which assesses the free choice of a mouse to spend time near or away from other mice5.
Similar to Crawley&#39;s three-chamber sociability test, the Damsel-in-Distress assay also measures free choice regarding how to spend time in the presence of another mouse, but it also provides measurements for deeper aspects of social functioning: 1) In the Damsel-in-Distress assay, the trapped female mouse is held in the center of an open field, so the male&#39;s potential aversion to an open field is pitted against his drive to socially explore or investigate a distressed female conspecific. 2) The Damsel-in-Distress model also provides a way to assess prosocial and empathetic behavior in response to the trapped mouse, which has not been frequently explored in mice.
Animal empathy is definitely observable and measurable, though not many paradigms exist for this purpose. For example, in rats, a trapped cage mate can induce a state of prosocial motivation, where rats will work to free the trapped animal. In fact, rats will choose to help the trapped animal even before opening a similar container containing a chocolate snack, then access the chocolate and share it with the newly freed rat6.
Measures of empathy in mice typically involve the infliction of pain; indeed, mice who watch other mice in pain are more sensitive to pain themselves7,8. Restraint stress is a characterized phenomenon in rodents and has been coupled with shock to examine stress responses, as one measure of empathy in mice9,10.
There are ethical considerations associated with induced pain or shock, so stress-inducing alternatives are needed. We developed the Damsel-in-Distress paradigm as a measure of empathetic behavior in the absence of either pain or shock treatment. The trapped mice in our Damsel-in-Distress protocol show overt signs of distress after only several moments as they are unable to turn around within the small container, yet they are unharmed while providing an opportunity for other mice to respond to their distress.
To begin the Damsel-in-Distress assessment, a male mouse is placed in a large novel arena containing a small empty central cylinder. Exploratory behaviors are recorded for several minutes, including how many sections of the arena are crossed and how much time is spent in the central open area. This method provides a quick and easy way to rule out locomotor deficits as a potential confounder in a learning situation that requires coordinated movement for successful completion. It also provides a basic measure of how much aversion to the open center field is present. Both measures could influence Barnes maze performance.
Following the initial exploration, the male is removed from the arena and a female mouse is placed in an enclosed, small clear central cylinder (similar to that used to collect blood from mice). Then, the original male mouse is reintroduced into the arena, and exploratory behavior is again scored. The Damsel-in-Distress paradigm assesses whether a mouse is interested in a social interaction based on changes in behavioral patterns when a trapped female is present (scored by time spent in the center square and the number of digging episodes), and whether the mouse exhibits prosocial behavior towards the trapped female (scored by the amount of cylinder investigations and contact events with the trapped female). The Damsel-in-Distress assay can be used to measure a propensity for social novelty (similar to Crawley&#39;s three-chamber sociability test) depending on whether researchers trap a familiar or novel mouse.
Together, the Barnes maze and Damsel-in-Distress experiments allow the accurate evaluation of mouse learning capabilities and social responsiveness in the absence of extremely stressful stimuli. As with all behavioral assays, these experiments should be performed with great sensitivity towards the animal experience, minimizing the discomfort experienced by the animal.
Like most mazes, differences in locomotor activity may influence performance on the Barnes maze, so researchers should also assess locomotor activity, especially when using the Barnes maze to assess learning in mice with mutations that may impair movement (such as those found in Huntington&#39;s disease mouse models, or those exposed to toxins that may induce hyperactivity or retard movement, such as ethanol). In addition, maze and chamber surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned and bedding changed between each animal to avoid scent cue confounds.
Importantly, all materials can be fabricated on site with minimal financial investment&#160;and the small physical footprint of these assays means that these experiments can be replicated in almost any setting, allowing for great flexibility. This type of accessibility allows good science to be performed at smaller institutions with limited resources or in situations where pilot data needs to be collected quickly in the absence of substantial support.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1391px;" width="1389">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Damsel-in-Distress</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:317px;"></td>
			<td style="width:731px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">50 mL conical tube</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">14-432-22</td>
			<td>Any brand of 50 mL conical tube will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rubber bands</td>
			<td>Sprano Brand</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Size 62, used to keep caps held to plywood</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">hammer</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Grainger</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">6R252</td>
			<td>Any standard hammer will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">nail (size 8D)</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Grainger</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">4NFE3</td>
			<td>Similarly-sized nails should work just as well</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">opaque, topless plastic box</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">AcmePlastics</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">CUT-TO-SIZE-ACRYLIC-CAST-BLACK-SHEET-2025</td>
			<td>Opaque plastic, cut to size (30 cm L x 19 cm W x 3-6 cm H). Step may be added to ensure no more than a 3.5 cm entrance depth for the mouse.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">video camera (smartphone)</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Any camera-equipped smartphone will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">bite-resistant gloves</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Kent Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">GLVDYN02</td>
			<td>Any brand offering appropriate protection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">transparency sheet</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Staples</td>
			<td style="width:317px;">954145</td>
			<td>Any brand of clear plastic sheet will work, used for scoring&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Barnes Maze</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Petri Dishes</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>353025</td>
			<td>Spray painted and used as covers for Barnes maze holes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Plywood (3/4 in.)</td>
			<td>LP Building Products</td>
			<td>22487</td>
			<td>To contruct Barnes maze</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Spray Paint</td>
			<td>Krylon</td>
			<td>1274937</td>
			<td>Used to paint petri dish caps black, white paint used to paint plywood</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cup Hooks (5/8 in.)</td>
			<td>Ace Hardware</td>
			<td>5360615</td>
			<td>2 used on either side of ventral hole surfaces; rubberband wraps around hooks to hold cap flat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Poster Board</td>
			<td>Creatology</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Used at edges of maze as extra cues</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Light Bulbs</td>
			<td>Phillips</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>100W light bulb, used to during the trials</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rubber bands</td>
			<td>Sprano Brand</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Size 62, used to keep caps held to plywood</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ultrasonic noisemaker</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">Victor mini PestChaser</td>
			<td>M753SN</td>
			<td>Used as aversive stimuli</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analyzing spatial learning and prosocial behavior in mice using the barnes maze and damsel-in-distress paradigms

The Barnes maze is a reliable measure of spatial learning and memory that does not require food restriction or exposure to extremely stressful stimuli. The Barnes maze can also assess other mouse behaviors, such as general motivation to escape from the maze platform and exploratory behavior. The Barnes maze can measure whether a genetic mutation or environmental variable can impact the acquisition and retention of spatial memories, as well as provide information about the search strategy employed by the mice. Here we use the Barnes maze to detect a memory deficit in adult mice following a single developmental ethanol exposure event. The newly described Damsel-in-Distress paradigm exposes a male mouse to a female mouse trapped in a chamber in the open center field of the arena. It provides an opportunity for the mouse to socially respond to the trapped female and exhibit prosocial behavior. The Damsel-in-Distress paradigm can also be used to examine mouse behavior in a novel arena and measure locomotor activity. Both the Barnes Maze and the Damsel-in-Distress protocols require minimal financial investment and most aspects of the tests can be constructed from common lab supplies. These flexible and accessible tools can also be used to detect behavioral changes over the course of development.

The Barnes Maze
To illustrate how the Barnes maze can be used, we investigated whether a single early ethanol exposure caused a difference in learning over the course of mouse development. C57Bl6/J mice were either injected with a 2.5 g/kg ethanol solution (n = 8) or with saline (n = 6) twice, two hours apart, at postnatal day 6. We trained the animals on the Barnes maze during adolescence (P30), then p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analyzing Spatial Learning and Prosocial Behavior in Mice Using the Barnes Maze and Damsel-in-Distress Paradigms at JoVE.com

Analyzing Spatial Learning and Prosocial Behavior in Mice Using the Barnes Maze and Damsel-in-Distress Paradigms

This protocol measures spatial learning and memory using the Barnes maze. A novel Damsel-in-Distress paradigm is used to assess locomotor activity and prosocial behavior in mice.

The Barnes maze is a reliable measure of spatial learning and memory that does not require food restriction or exposure to extremely stressful stimuli. ...

This method can help answer key questions in the behavioral neuroscience field about whether a genetic mutation or environmental variable can impact social behaviors or the acquisition and retention of spacial memories. The main advantages of these techniques are that both the studies can be simply constructed with minimal financial investment and that neither protocol requires the animals to experience extreme or stressful stimuli. The Damsel in Distress method can provide insight into mouse pro-social behaviors, but it can also be used as an empathy measure in other mammalian model organisms.Before beginning the Barnes Maze Testing Procedure, clean all of the maze components with water and 70%ethanol. When the components are dry, assemble the maze and randomly assign each mouse to a target hole to use throughout the testing period. The holes can be labeled one to 20 on the bottom of the maze or on the outside of the maze perimeter where they are not visible from within the maze.To start a training test, replace the assigned hole disc with a 23 by 11 centimeter black box and use rubber bands and hooks to firmly attach the box to the maze. Then, place a mouse onto the center of the Barnes Maze beneath a cup and allow the mouse to acclimate for 30 seconds. At the end of the acclimation period, begin the video recording and turn on the light and ultrasonic noise maker.Lift the cup via a string mechanism to avoid biasing the initial heading of the animal and start a timer behind an observation curtain. Track the animal's movements on a piece of paper with a diagram of the maze and use the diagram to analyze the mouse's search strategies as well as to determine the number of holes that were explored in the quadrant opposite the target. When the mouse enters the target hole, cover the hole with a heavy opaque binder and turn off the ultrasonic noise maker.If the mouse has not entered the target after five minutes, corral the animal into the target hole. Then, allow the mouse to remain in the target box for one minute undisturbed, making sure to turn off the ultrasonic noise. Then, return the animal to its cage.When all of the mice have been tested, manually review their recording to track the overall movement of the mouse to determine the number of incorrect holes explored before and after the target is found, as well as the number of holes from the target hole to the first hole explored and any notable grooming behavior. For exploratory behavior Damsel in Distress Testing, place a closed and empty stress chamber into the center of an empathy arena and begin recording with the suspended camera. Gently place a male mouse beneath a cup at the lower left corner in the arena for 30 seconds.Then, remove the cup via a string mechanism and allow the mouse to explore for 10 minutes taking care to stay out of the field of view during the recording. At the end of the exploration period, move the mouse from the arena into a holding cage for five minutes and stop and save the recording. For social responsiveness Damsel in Distress Testing, gently manually restrain a female mouse and lower the mouse into a restraint chamber.Close the open end of the chamber behind the mouse and confirm that the mouse is unable to turn around. Begin recording with the suspended camera and place the restraint chamber inside in the center of the arena. Allow the animal to acclimate for 10 minutes taking care to remain out of the field of view.Then, transfer the male mouse from the holding area back into the empathy arena for 10 seconds and allow the male mouse an additional five minutes to explore the arena taking care to remain out of the field of view. At the end of the exploration period, stop and save the video file and return both mice to their cages. Then, replace the corn bedding and sanitize both the arena and the stress chamber with 70%ethanol.To analyze the data, open the video file in the appropriate tracking software and place a transparent sheet over the screen. Outline the square of the arena with a marker and divide the arena square into nine equal compartments. Review the video data for the first five minutes of the initial exploratory measure recording the number of compartments crossed, the time spent in the center square of the arena, the number of digging and grooming episodes, and the number of times the mouse touched the empty center restraint chamber.Then, review the video data for the five minutes of the social responsiveness measure immediately after the male is reintroduced into the arena with the trapped female recording the same data as for the initial exploratory measure, but adding tracking of the number of times the male mouse touched noses with the trapped female mouse. When Barnes Maze trained neonates are run as adults in a single long term trial, the ethanol injected mice have a harder time remembering where the target hole was located than saline injected control animals. Ethanol treated mice also explore significantly more holes in the opposite quadrant from the target, indicating a failure to remember the correct general spacial location and use a sequential hole to hole search in a ring shaped fashion until the hole is found.In the Damsel in Distress model, older mice cross more squares than younger mice. In the presence of a trapped female however, male mice of both ages spend less time exploring the arena. Juvenile males spend more time digging during their time in the arena in the presence of a trapped female mouse than when alone suggesting anxiety or pro-social behavior toward the trapped female.By contrast, male mice touch the tube containing the trapped female and initiate trapped female contact significantly more frequently as adults than as juveniles. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to keep the conditions constant between and within the trials to ensure that the environmental variables do not confound the results of the study. Following the initial use of these behavioral assays, the same animals can be retested at various time points during development to answer questions about long term memory and possible changes in social behaviors.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Contextual and Cued Fear Conditioning Test Using a Video Analyzing System in Mice

The contextual and cued fear conditioning test is one of the behavioral tests that assesses the ability of mice to learn and remember an association between environmental cues and aversive experiences. In this test, mice are placed into a conditioning chamber and are given parings of a conditioned stimulus (an auditory cue) and an aversive unconditioned stimulus (an electric footshock). After a delay time, the mice are exposed to the same conditioning chamber and a differently shaped chamber with presentation of the auditory cue. Freezing behavior during the test is measured as an index of fear memory. To analyze the behavior automatically, we have developed a video analyzing system using the ImageFZ application software program, which is available as a free download at http://www.mouse-phenotype.org/. Here, to show the details of our protocol, we demonstrate our procedure for the contextual and cued fear conditioning test in C57BL/6J mice using the ImageFZ system. In addition, we validated our protocol and the video analyzing system performance by comparing freezing time measured by the ImageFZ system or a photobeam-based computer measurement system with that scored by a human observer. As shown in our representative results, the data obtained by ImageFZ were similar to those analyzed by a human observer, indicating that the behavioral analysis using the ImageFZ system is highly reliable. The present movie article provides detailed information regarding the test procedures and will promote understanding of the experimental situation.

This article presents a protocol for a contextual and cued fear conditioning test using a video analyzing system to assess fear learning and memory in mice.

The contextual and cued fear conditioning test is one of the behavioral tests that assesses the ability of mice to learn and remember an association ...

Barnes Maze Testing Strategies with Small and Large Rodent Models

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land (Barnes) mazes. Improved performance over sessions or trials is thought to reflect learning and memory of the escape cage/platform location. Considered less stressful than water mazes, the Barnes maze is a relatively simple design of a circular platform top with several holes equally spaced around the perimeter edge. All but one of the holes are false-bottomed or blind-ending, while one leads to an escape cage. Mildly aversive stimuli (e.g.&#160;bright overhead lights) provide motivation to locate the escape cage. Latency to locate the escape cage can be measured during the session; however, additional endpoints typically require video recording. From those video recordings, use of automated tracking software can generate a variety of endpoints that are similar to those produced in water mazes (e.g.&#160;distance traveled, velocity/speed, time spent in the correct quadrant, time spent moving/resting, and confirmation of latency). Type of search strategy (i.e.&#160;random, serial, or direct) can be categorized as well. Barnes maze construction and testing methodologies can differ for small rodents, such as mice, and large rodents, such as rats. For example, while extra-maze cues are effective for rats, smaller wild rodents may require intra-maze cues with a visual barrier around the maze. Appropriate stimuli must be identified which motivate the rodent to locate the escape cage. Both Barnes and water mazes can be time consuming as 4-7 test trials are typically required to detect improved learning and memory performance (e.g.&#160;shorter latencies or path lengths to locate the escape platform or cage) and/or differences between experimental groups. Even so, the Barnes maze is a widely employed behavioral assessment measuring spatial navigational abilities and their potential disruption by genetic, neurobehavioral manipulations, or drug/ toxicant exposure.

The dry-land Barnes maze is widely used to measure spatial navigation ability in response to mildly aversive stimuli. Over consecutive days, performance (e.g.&#160;latency to locate escape cage) of control subjects improves, indicative of normal learning and memory. Differences between rats and mice necessitate apparatus and methodology changes that are detailed here.

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land ...

Use of the Open Field Maze to Measure Locomotor and Anxiety-like Behavior in Mice

Animal models have proven to be invaluable to researchers trying to answer questions regarding the mechanisms of behavior. The Open Field Maze is one of the most commonly used platforms to measure behaviors in animal models. It is a fast and relatively easy test that provides a variety of behavioral information ranging from general ambulatory ability to data regarding the emotionality of the subject animal. As it relates to rodent models, the procedure allows the study of different strains of mice or rats both laboratory bred and wild-captured. The technique also readily lends itself to the investigation of different pharmacological compounds for anxiolytic or anxiogenic effects. Here, a protocol for use of the open field maze to describe mouse behaviors is detailed and a simple analysis of general locomotor ability and anxiety-related emotional behaviors between two strains of C57BL/6 mice is performed. Briefly, using the described protocol we show Wild Type mice exhibited significantly less anxiety related behaviors than did age-matched Knock Out mice while both strains exhibited similar ambulatory ability.

A protocol is provided to use an Open Field Maze to access general locomotor activity, anxiety and emotionality in a laboratory mouse model.

Animal models have proven to be invaluable to researchers trying to answer questions regarding the mechanisms of behavior. The Open Field Maze is one of ...

The Double-H Maze: A Robust Behavioral Test for Learning and Memory in Rodents

Spatial cognition research in rodents typically employs the use of maze tasks, whose attributes vary from one maze to the next. These tasks vary by their behavioral flexibility and required memory duration, the number of goals and pathways, and also the overall task complexity. A confounding feature in many of these tasks is the lack of control over the strategy employed by the rodents to reach the goal, e.g., allocentric (declarative-like) or egocentric (procedural) based strategies. The double-H maze is a novel water-escape memory task that addresses this issue, by allowing the experimenter to direct the type of strategy learned during the training period. The double-H maze is a transparent device, which consists of a central alleyway with three arms protruding on both sides, along with an escape platform submerged at the extremity of one of these arms.
Rats can be trained using an allocentric strategy by alternating the start position in the maze in an unpredictable manner (see protocol 1; &#167;4.7), thus requiring them to learn the location of the platform based on the available allothetic cues. Alternatively, an egocentric learning strategy (protocol 2; &#167;4.8) can be employed by releasing the rats from the same position during each trial, until they learn the procedural pattern required to reach the goal. This task has been proven to allow for the formation of stable memory traces.
Memory can be probed following the training period in a misleading probe trial, in which the starting position for the rats alternates. Following an egocentric learning paradigm, rats typically resort to an allocentric-based strategy, but only when their initial view on the extra-maze cues differs markedly from their original position. This task is ideally suited to explore the effects of drugs/perturbations on allocentric/egocentric memory performance, as well as the interactions between these two memory systems.

The goal of this protocol is to investigate spatial cognition in rodents. The double-H water maze is a novel test, which is particularly useful to elucidate the different components of learning, consolidation and memory, as well as the interplay of memory systems.

Spatial cognition research in rodents typically employs the use of maze tasks, whose attributes vary from one maze to the next. These tasks vary by their ...

Place and Response Learning in the Open-field Tower Maze

This protocol describes how the Open-field Tower Maze (OFTM) paradigm is used to study spatial learning in rodents. This maze is especially useful for examining how rats learn to use a place- or response-learning to successfully navigate in an open-field arena. Additionally, this protocol describes how the OFTM differs from other behavioral maze paradigms that are commonly used to study spatial learning in rodents. The OFTM described in this article was adapted from the one previously described by Cole, Clipperton, and Walt (2007). Specifically, the OFTM was created to test spatial learning in rodents without the experimenter having to consider how &#8220;stress&#8221; might play a role as a confounding variable. Experiments have shown that stress-alone can significantly affect cognitive function1. The representative results section contains data from an experiment that used the OFTM to examine the effects of estradiol treatment on place- and response-learning in adult female Sprague Dawley rats2. Future studies will be designed to examine the role of the hippocampus and striatum in place- and response-learning in the OFTM.

The Open-field Tower Maze (OFTM) is a maze created to study the behavioral and neural mechanisms of spatial learning (e.g., place- or response-learning) in rats. This maze is especially useful for experimenters who want to use a non-stressful maze paradigm to investigate spatial learning in their research.

This protocol describes how the Open-field Tower Maze (OFTM) paradigm is used to study spatial learning in rodents. This maze is especially useful for ...

Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice

The object recognition test (ORT) is a commonly used behavioral assay for the investigation of various aspects of learning and memory in mice. The ORT is fairly simple and can be completed over 3 days: habituation day, training day, and testing day. During training, the mouse is allowed to explore 2 identical objects. On test day, one of the training objects is replaced with a novel object. Because mice have an innate preference for novelty, if the mouse recognizes the familiar object, it will spend most of its time at the novel object. Due to this innate preference, there is no need for positive or negative reinforcement or long training schedules. Additionally, the ORT can also be modified for numerous applications. The retention interval can be shortened to examine short-term memory, or lengthened to probe long-term memory. Pharmacological intervention can be used at various times prior to training, after training, or prior to recall to investigate different phases of learning (i.e., acquisition, early or late consolidation, or recall). Overall, the ORT is a relatively low-stress, efficient test for memory in mice, and is appropriate for the detection of neuropsychological changes following pharmacological, biological, or genetic manipulations.

The object recognition test (ORT) is a simple and efficient assay for evaluating learning and memory in mice. The methodology is described below.

The object recognition test (ORT) is a commonly used behavioral assay for the investigation of various aspects of learning and memory in mice. The ORT is ...

Assessing Spatial Memory Impairment in a Mouse Model of Traumatic Brain Injury Using a Radial Water Tread Maze

Despite the recent increase in use of mouse models in scientific research, researchers continue to use cognitive tasks that were originally designed and validated for rat use. The Radial Water Tread (RWT) maze test of spatial memory (designed specifically for mice and requiring no swimming) has been shown previously to successfully distinguish between controlled cortical impact-induced TBI mice and sham controls. Here, a detailed protocol for this task is presented. The RWT maze capitalizes on the natural tendency of mice to avoid open areas in favor of hugging the sides of an apparatus (thigmotaxis). The walls of the maze are lined with nine escape holes placed above the floor of the apparatus, and mice are trained to use visual cues to locate the escape hole that leads out of the maze. The maze is filled with an inch of cold water, sufficient to motivate escape but not deep enough to require that the mouse swim. The acquisition period takes only four training days, with a test of memory retention on day five and a long-term memory test on day 12. The results reported here suggest that the RWT maze is a feasible alternative to rat-validated, swimming-based cognitive tests in the assessment of spatial memory deficits in mouse models of TBI.

Here we present a protocol for a mouse-specific test of cognition that does not require swimming. This test can be used to successfully distinguish controlled cortical impact-induced traumatic brain injury mice from sham controls.

Despite the recent increase in use of mouse models in scientific research, researchers continue to use cognitive tasks that were originally designed and ...

The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different versions of the paradigm, spatial language use and memory for object location are tested under different, experimentally manipulated conditions. This allows us to tease apart proposed models explaining the influence of object knowledge on spatial language (e.g., spatial demonstratives), and spatial memory, as well as understanding the parameters that affect demonstrative choice and spatial memory more broadly. Key to the development of the method was the need to collect data on language use (e.g., spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that&#34;) and spatial memory data under strictly controlled conditions, while retaining a degree of ecological validity. The language version (section 3.1) of the memory game tests how conditions affect language use. Participants refer verbally to objects placed at different locations (e.g., using spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that red circle&#34;). Different parameters can be experimentally manipulated: the distance from the participant, the position of a conspecific, and for example whether the participant owns, knows, or sees the object while referring to it. The same parameters can be manipulated in the memory version of the memory game (section 3.2). This version tests the effects of the different conditions on object-location memory. Following object placement, participants get 10 seconds to memorize the object&#39;s location. After the object and location cues are removed, participants verbally direct the experimenter to move a stick to indicate where the object was. The difference between the memorized and the actual location shows the direction and strength of the memory error, allowing comparisons between the influences of the respective parameters.

The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

We present a protocol to explore the relationship between spatial language production, spatial memory, and object knowledge. The procedure allows experimental manipulation of, and control over, conditions of object knowledge, language at instruction, and physical location, thus teasing apart cognitive and linguistic models describing interactions between these variables.

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different ...

An Automated T-maze Based Apparatus and Protocol for Analyzing Delay- and Effort-based Decision Making in  Free Moving Rodents

Many neurological and psychiatric patients demonstrate difficulties and/or deficits in decision making. Rodent models are helpful to produce a deeper understanding of the neurobiological causes underlying the decision-making problems. A cost-benefit based T-maze task is used for measuring decision making in which rodents choose between a high reward arm (HRA) and a low reward arm (LRA). There are two paradigms of the T-maze decision-making task, one in which the cost is a time delay and the other in which it is physical effort. Both paradigms require a tedious and labor-intensive management of experimental animals, multiple doors, pellet reward, and arm choice recordings. In the current work, we invented an apparatus based on traditional T-maze with full automation for pellet delivery, door management and choice recordings. This automated setup can be used for the evaluation of both delay- and effort-based decision making in rodents. With the protocol described here, our lab investigated the decision-making phenotypes of multiple genetically modified mice. In the representative data, we showed that the mice with ablated medial habenular showed aversions of both delay and effort and tended to choose the immediate and effortless reward. This protocol helps to decrease the variability caused by experimenter intervention and to enhance experiment efficiency. In addition, chronic silicon probe or microelectrode recording, fiber-optic imaging and/or manipulation of neural activity can be easily applied during the decision-making task using the setup described here.

This article introduces an automated T-maze apparatus that we invented, and a protocol based on this apparatus for analyzing delay-based decision making and effort-based decision making in free moving rodents.

Many neurological and psychiatric patients demonstrate difficulties and/or deficits in decision making. Rodent models are helpful to produce a deeper ...

Analysis of Learning and Memory Ability in an Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model using the Morris Water Maze

A Morris water maze (MWM) experiment forces experimental animals to swim and learn to find a platform hidden in the water. It is widely used in scientific research to assess the learning and memory of animals. Due to the extensive use of the MWM test, visual experimental protocols are essential for researchers. This manuscript uses the latest studies to introduce the protocol of the MWM test. Alzheimer&#8217; Disease (AD) is characterized by a progressive loss of memory and cognitive function. An alternative and complementary treatment used for AD is Manual Acupuncture (MA). To assess the learning and memory ability of AD model mice, the MWM test was conducted. The visible platform trial, hidden platform trial, probe trial, and reversal trial of MWM were used to evaluate spatial learning and memory ability. In the visible platform trial, the swimming speed and escape latency of mice in different groups was not significantly different. In the hidden platform and reversal trials, the AD group showed a long escape latency. The escape latency decreased significantly after the MA treatment. Low platform crossover number and the proportion of time in the SW quadrant in the probe trial increased after the MA treatment (p &#60; 0.05 or p &#60; 0.01). The results of the MWM tests suggest that MA can effectively improve the spatial learning and memory abilities of AD model mice. Rigorous experimental operations provided assurance of the reliability of the results.

Herein, a protocol to conduct the Morris water maze tests to evaluate the ability of learning and memory of Alzheimer&#8217;s Disease model mice and to assess the effect of manual acupuncture for treating them is described.

A Morris water maze (MWM) experiment forces experimental animals to swim and learn to find a platform hidden in the water. It is widely used in scientific ...