This project was funded by the Intramural Research Program at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center. We acknowledge the helpful discussions with Dr. Thomas Bulea, PhD and Laurie Ohlrich, PT in refining the procedures presented in this protocol. Muyinat W. Osoba and Andrew Gravunder, MS assisted with the animations.

NOTE: This protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the National Institutes of Health (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01829724). All participants are given the opportunity to ask questions and provide informed consent prior to their participation. In consideration of changes to the hemodynamic response caused by recent use of vasodilators and vasoconstrictors, participants are asked to refrain from alcohol and caffeine for 24 hr before the experiment3.These animation videos were custom made in our laboratory, but could be recorded with other sounds or images specific to alternative research questions.
1. Set Up the Room Prior to the Participant&#8217;s Arrival.
<ol>
	<li>Calibrate the motion capture cameras relative to a laboratory&#8217;s coordinates according to the motion capture manufacturer&#8217;s specific process. Ensure that camera positions will allow recording of all markers on both the body and head of the participant during the tasks that will be tested. The calibration process ensures accuracy of the motion capture system and is standard practice for any motion laboratory. Use a ten camera system, with an approximate volume of 17 m3 where reflective markers could be identified reliably.</li>
	<li>Connect the trigger from the instruction computer to the motion capture and fNIRS computers&#8217; BNC inputs. Ensure that the trigger is connected to a mouse button, and clicking the mouse completes the circuit and sends a pulse simultaneously to the motion capture/EMG data acquisition board and to the fNIRS data acquisition board as auxillary analog inputs.</li>
	<li>Connect this mouse through the USB port to the computer that run instruction animation videos, such that starting the video will cause a voltage change simultaneously on both data acquisition systems. 
	NOTE: EMG signals are automatically synched and saved by the motion capture software, so additional synching of the EMG system is not needed.</li>
	<li>Set up the screen and projector for instructions to be shown to the participant. Remove any unnecessary items that could be distracters. Place the tripod and digital video camera where they will have full view of the participant&#8217;s movements.</li>
	<li>Verify that reflective markers are securely attached to the top of each optode in the probe.</li>
	<li>Assemble all necessary documents: consent and assent copies, clinical examination sheets, and experimental note sheets, for example.</li>
</ol>
2. Basic Measures
<ol>
	<li>After completing the informed consent process, measure and record participant&#8217;s height, weight, age, and head circumference.</li>
	<li>Administer Edinburgh Handedness Inventory10 and other clinical examinations as indicated. Record participant-reported hair and skin types.</li>
	<li>Place reflective markers on the posterior superior iliac spines (PSIS) bilaterally. Have the participant walk at their comfortable pace across the lab 3 - 5 times, and average the speed across trials to estimate their self selected walking pace.</li>
</ol>
3. Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) Setup
NOTE: This can be completed simultaneously with the setup of EMG and motion capture, if there are enough experimenters or research staff to assist, and if the participant is comfortable with several people being close to them at the same time.
<ol>
	<li>Measure the distance between the nasion (Nz) and the inion (Iz), and between the pre-auricular points on the right (Ar) and left (Al) ears. The intersection of the midpoint of these two measures is Cz, which is marked on the scalp using a washable marker.</li>
	<li>If the participant has long hair, section off small portions of the hair using braids or ponytails in order to expose the scalp where optodes will be placed.</li>
	<li>Place the fNIRS probe onto the participant&#8217;s head, taking care to align with Cz, Ar. Then move hair away from under each optode as it is placed it on the scalp. Finally, attach velcro straps to securely hold the optodes in place. 
	NOTE: In this protocol, use a cap that has one strap that goes behind the head, one that goes across the forehead, and one that goes under the chin. Optodes are anchored to this cap with Velcro on a flexible plastic ring that encircles the ear.
	<ol>
		<li>If the participant has short hair (less than approximately 2 inches in length), pull out hair between optodes with a small thin stick or plastic end of a comb.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Verify that all optode cables are lying flat, and that optodes are approximately perpendicular to the surface of the scalp.
	<ol>
		<li>If necessary, place a thin piece of foam under the group of optode cables to promote perpendicular alignment of the optodes.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Check with the participant about comfort of the probes, and adjust if needed. Instruct them to tell the experimenters if their comfort decreases at any point during the experiment.</li>
	<li>Turn on sources and check the signals.
	<ol>
		<li>In this system, ensure a signal that has an intensity of at least 80 dB and a heartbeat clearly visible in the deltaOD (change in optical density) signal, at both 690 and 830 nm wavelengths. When channels have signals not meeting these criteria, confirm that hair is not blocking the optode(s) and then adjust detector gains as needed to maximize the signal intensity. Ensure that motion capture cameras are off during this time. 
		NOTE: Other fNIRS machines may operate at wavelengths different to 690 and 830 nm; in this case, check the wavelengths most appropriate to the machine being used.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Add reflective markers to Nz, Iz, Ar, and Al. Ask the participant to hold still and collect approximately 2 sec&#160;of motion capture data for these and the fNIRS optode markers. Verify that all markers have been recorded, and collect additional trials as necessary. It may require the participant to change head position to improve line of sight between the cameras and the markers. Use these collected three dimensional locations during analysis for probabilistic registration of a participant&#8217;s individual structural MRI if one is available.</li>
	<li>Add a cover with several layers of black felt or other optically absorbent material on top of the fNIRS optodes to protect detectors from interference or saturation from the motion capture cameras. Ensure that the cables and front panel of the fNIRS unit are also well shielded using the same optically absorbent material.</li>
</ol>
4. Surface Electromyography (EMG) Setup
<ol>
	<li>Locate the muscle belly of each targeted muscle using anatomical landmarks, palpation during muscle contraction, and electrode placement guides11. 
	NOTE: The muscles targeted in this protocol include bilateral medial gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, extensor carpi radialis, and flexor carpi radialis.</li>
	<li>Prepare for EMG electrode placement over the muscle belly by shaving, removing dead skin cells with tape, and then cleaning with an isopropyl alcohol pad, as recommended by SENIAM12 and wait for skin to dry.</li>
	<li>Place EMG electrode oriented to the direction of the muscle fibers.</li>
	<li>Wrap snugly with a self adherent wrap.</li>
	<li>Check muscle signals on the computer while performing manual muscle testing to ensure proper electrode placement, and clear visualization of signal change when the muscle is active.</li>
</ol>
5. Motion Capture Setup
<ol>
	<li>Place reflective markers at joint landmarks. These include medial and lateral malleolus, medial and lateral knee joint, anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS), posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS), radial styloid, ulnar syloid, medial humeral epicondyl, and lateral humeral epicondyl.</li>
	<li>Place 3 or more markers, or a rigid body cluster of markers, onto each segment of interest, including the foot, shank, thigh, hand, and forearm.</li>
	<li>Collect approximately 2 sec of motion capture data while the participant is standing still in a standardized position, such as standing with arms at 90&#176; shoulder flexion and 90&#176; elbow flexion. Ensure that all markers are clearly visible to the cameras.</li>
</ol>
6. Gait Task
<ol>
	<li>Have the participant transfer to the treadmill. Assist them by supporting the fNIRS optode cables and then secure the cables to the ceiling support after the patient is in position. If patient is at high risk for falls, use a body weight support harness for safety during this task.</li>
	<li>Start the treadmill, slowly building up to the measured self selected walking speed to get the participant comfortable with the set up conditions. Then slow to a stop again.</li>
	<li>Set up the animation file with the auditory feedback that will cue the participant to either rest or move. Review task instructions with the participant, telling them to remain as still and relaxed as possible during &#8220;rest&#8221; periods and to walk at the treadmill&#8217;s set speed during the &#8220;task&#8221; period, while focusing their attention to the small black circle on the screen for the duration of data acquisition.</li>
	<li>Dim the lights, and begin data acquisition on the motion capture computer and the fNIRS computer. Begin recording on the video camera.</li>
	<li>Using the mouse trigger, click the play button on the animation file associated with this task. Make sure that the trigger was received by both the motion capture and the NIRS systems.
	<ol>
		<li>Switch to an image of a black dot located in the participant&#8217;s line of sight, so that they have a focus point for the duration of the trial. 
		NOTE: The overview schematic for each trial is shown in Figure 2.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Monitor participant performance and provide feedback about speed, or extraneous voluntary movements as needed.</li>
	<li>At the end of the instructional animation, stop recording on the motion capture, EMG, and fNIRS systems, as well as the video camera. Give the participant an opportunity to rest or shift positions as necessary.</li>
</ol>
7. Bilateral Lower Extremity Cycling Task
<ol>
	<li>Have the participant transition to a plinth with movable back and leg support, taking care to support the fNIRS optode cables and to not bump or dislodge the motion capture markers or EMG electrodes. Have a foam seat cushion to improve comfort during the experiment.</li>
	<li>Lift the cycle frame into position and secure it to the plinth with a strap.</li>
	<li>Secure the feet into the pedals and adjust the position of the cycle as necessary to promote a comfortable and natural distance to the pedals. At the furthest point in the cycle, maintain their knee in approximately 10&#176; of flexion. 
	NOTE: At this point, the participant will be in a semi-recumbent posture, which provides some trunk support and facilitates relaxation during the rest period.</li>
	<li>Review task instructions with the participant, telling them to remain as still and relaxed as possible during &#8220;rest&#8221; periods and to cycle at approximately 60 rpm during the &#8220;task&#8221; period.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 6.4 to 6.7. Instead of switching to an image of a dot, project the cartoon animation that will cue the participant to either rest or move through visual and auditory feedback. Maximize the movie window so that the participant is not able to monitor the time that has passed, or is remaining, in the current trial.</li>
</ol>
8. Hand Squeezing Task
<ol>
	<li>After removing the feet from the cycle and the cycle itself, place a bed table in front of the participant, making sure that participant&#8217;s arms are supported on the table at a comfortable position.</li>
	<li>Instruct participant to squeeze a soft object approximately once per sec (1 Hz) during the &#8220;task&#8221; period, and remain as relaxed as possible during &#8220;rest&#8221; periods.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 7.5.</li>
</ol>
9. Ankle Dorsiflexion Task
<ol>
	<li>Remove the bed table, and raise the foot rest portion of the plinth up to bring the feet into the participant&#8217;s view.</li>
	<li>Remove the participant&#8217;s shoe and sock, and replace foot markers in appropriate positions. Support the calf just above their ankle joint with a foam pad to allow ankle joint movement.</li>
	<li>Instruct the participant to dorsiflex their ankle approximately once per sec&#160;(1 Hz) during the &#8220;task&#8221; period, and remain as relaxed as possible during &#8220;rest&#8221; periods.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 7.5.</li>
</ol>
10. Conclusion of Protocol
<ol>
	<li>Remove the cap and inspect skin for areas of pressure or redness.</li>
	<li>Remove all reflective markers and EMG units.</li>
	<li>Thank the participant for their time and invite their input about the subjective experience of the protocol. This can be a formal questionnaire (as used by Garvey and colleagues for transcranial magnetic stimulation13), or an informal discussion to identify common sources of discomfort that could be improved in the future.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Simultaneous collection of brain activity from targeted areas of the cortex and quantitative data about how a person is moving presents tremendous potential for improving our understanding of the neural control of movement, both in a typically developing population as well as those with movement disorders. There is also broad application in terms of ages and movement tasks that could be completed, as participants are not restricted to a supine position as they would be for a functional MRI. The specific equipment items a...

Neural imaging during functional tasks has become more portable and cost-efficient using non-invasive functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to identify areas of brain activity by measuring blood flow dynamics at the cortex. The portability of fNIRS is especially useful in the study of upright and functional tasks such as gait1, which is not possible with other technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This capability is critical in the fields of neurology and neuroscience, and could provide new insights into mechanisms underlying movement disorders in children and adults with cerebral palsy (CP) and other neurological conditions affecting motor control. Understanding mechanisms improves the ability to design efficacious interventions to target the source of impairments and activity limitations.
Many fNIRS studies of motor tasks to date have been with a healthy population of adults where participants are instructed to perform a certain task and monitoring of task performance is limited to visual inspection. This can be sufficient for those with typical movements and a high level of engagement, but is not acceptable when studying participants with movement disorders or those who have difficulty attending to a task for extended periods of time, including typically developing children. In order to inform the analysis of brain activation in these cases, concurrent monitoring of the motor pattern that is actually completed is required.
Comprehensive reviews of fNIRS systems and usages have been presented in the literature2-5 that guide usage and help to demonstrate the accuracy and sensitivity of these systems, but technical issues in the collection, processing and interpretation of fNIRS data still remain. Color and thickness of hair affect quality of the optical signal, with dark thick hair most likely to block or distort optical transmission3,6. This is especially relevant when studying the sensorimotor areas located on the crown area of the head where hair follicle density is the greatest, and some studies report non-responders6,7. The well established International 10/20 system can be used for placement of the optodes, but particularly in the case of those with atypical brain anatomy, co-registration of optode location to a participant&#8217;s anatomical MRI is very useful if not essential to accurately interpret the results.
The use of fNIRS to assess brain activation in childhood-onset brain injury is fairly recent, but gaining traction in the area of unilateral cerebral palsy6,8,9. In consideration of the aforementioned challenges, this protocol combines fNIRS, motion capture, and electromyographic (EMG) monitoring during a number of tasks, including simple single-joint tasks as well as more complex full-body motions. Visual and auditory guidance is used to improve attention and task performance across multiple ages of participants. The goal of the protocol is to identify differences in brain activation patterns in those with unilateral and bilateral childhood-onset brain injury compared to those who are typically developing. We explore a full body movement (gait), a bilateral lower extremity multi-joint movement (cycling), and two unilateral single-joint movements (isolated ankle dorsiflexion, and isolated hand squeezing) to illustrate the variety of applications of the methods. The same or a very similar protocol could be used to study other sensory or movement disorders or other tasks of interest.
Continuous wave near infrared light was emitted and detected at 690 nm and 830 nm over the sensorimotor cortices using the fNIRS system at a rate of 50 Hz, using a custom designed source-detector configuration. EMG data were collected wirelessly at a frequency of 1,000 Hz. Reflective marker 3-D locations were collected by an optical motion capture system at a rate of 100 Hz. Two different computers handled data acquisition, one for the fNIRS and another for the motion capture and EMG. Data were synced using a trigger pulse from a third computer that corresponds to a mouse button press to start the instructional animation for each task. For all tasks except gait, instructional animations were designed to standardize participant performance using visual guidance of the pace of a task (1 Hz), represented by a cartoon animal jumping or kicking, as well as an auditory cue.

<table><tbody><tr><td>CW6</td><td>TechEn</td><td>http://nirsoptix.com/</td><td>fNIRS machine with variable number of sources and detectors, depending on the number of modules included</td></tr><tr><td>MX system with ten T40-series cameras</td><td>Vicon Motion Systems Ltd., Oxford, UK</td><td>http://www.vicon.com/System/TSeries</td><td>Motion capture cameras</td></tr><tr><td>reflective 4 mm markers</td><td>Vicon Motion Systems Ltd., Oxford, UK</td><td></td><td>Markers used by the motion capture cameras to locate fNIRS optodes, Ar, Al, Nz, and hand coordinates.</td></tr><tr><td>reflective 9.5 mm markers</td><td>Vicon Motion Systems Ltd., Oxford, UK</td><td></td><td>Markers used by the motion capture cameras to locate arm and leg coordinates. Clusters are used for the limb segments, and markers with offsets are uses for PSIS and Iz to improve reliability in data capture.</td></tr><tr><td>Trigno Wireless EMG system</td><td>Delsys, Inc. Natick, MA</td><td>http://www.delsys.com/products/wireless-emg/</td><td>Electromyography</td></tr><tr><td>Bertec split-belt instrumented treadmill</td><td>Bertec Corporation, Columbus, OH</td><td>http://bertec.com/products/instrumented-treadmills.html</td><td>Treadmill</td></tr><tr><td>ZeroG body-weight support system</td><td>Aretech, LLC, Ashburn, VA</td><td>http://www.aretechllc.com/overview.html</td><td>Track and passive trolley used to support cables, harness can be used for patient safety during gait trials</td></tr><tr><td>3DS Max 2013</td><td>Autodesk, Inc., San Francisco, CA&amp;nbsp;</td><td>http://www.autodesk.com/</td><td>3-D animation software used to animate animals for instructional videos</td></tr><tr><td>Windows Movie Maker</td><td>Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA</td><td>http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-live/movie-maker</td><td>software used to combine animation footage with music</td></tr><tr><td>Audacity</td><td>open source</td><td>http://audacity.sourceforge.net/</td><td>Software used to alter musical beat to appropriate cadence</td></tr></tbody></table>

functional near infrared spectroscopy of the sensory and motor brain regions with simultaneous kinematic and emg monitoring during motor tasks

There are several advantages that functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) presents in the study of the neural control of human movement. It is relatively flexible with respect to participant positioning and allows for some head movements during tasks. Additionally, it is inexpensive, light weight, and portable, with very few contraindications to its use. This presents a unique opportunity to study functional brain activity during motor tasks in individuals who are typically developing, as well as those with movement disorders, such as cerebral palsy. An additional consideration when studying movement disorders, however, is the quality of actual movements performed and the potential for additional, unintended movements. Therefore, concurrent monitoring of both blood flow changes in the brain and actual movements of the body during testing is required for appropriate interpretation of fNIRS results. Here, we show a protocol for the combination of fNIRS with muscle and kinematic monitoring during motor tasks. We explore gait, a unilateral multi-joint movement (cycling), and two unilateral single-joint movements (isolated ankle dorsiflexion, and isolated hand squeezing). The techniques presented can be useful in studying both typical and atypical motor control, and can be modified to investigate a broad range of tasks and scientific questions.

This protocol coordinates concurrent acquisition of 3 modalities to capture brain blood flow, electrical muscle activity, and kinematic movement of joints while a participant performs motor tasks (Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52391/52391fig1highres.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;Probe location. The left portion of this figure shows the approximate locations of the sensory areas (in b...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks at JoVE.com

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks

Monitoring brain activity during upright motor tasks is of great value when investigating the neural source of movement disorders. Here, we demonstrate a protocol that combines functional near infrared spectroscopy with continuous monitoring of muscle and kinematic activity during 4 types of motor tasks.

There are several advantages that functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) presents in the study of the neural control of human movement. It is ...

functional-near-infrared-spectroscopy-sensory-motor-brain-regions

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

15.1K Views.  National Institutes of Health. Monitoring brain activity during upright motor tasks is of great value when investigating the neural source of movement disorders. Here, we demonstrate a protocol that combines functional near infrared spectroscopy with continuous monitoring of muscle and kinematic activity during 4 types of motor tasks.

Video: Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography (EEG), Electromyography (EMG), and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Recent studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal human walking. Part of this evidence encompasses studies, including our previous work, demonstrating that gait kinematics and limb coordination during treadmill walking can be inferred from the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) with reasonably high decoding accuracies. These results provide impetus for development of non-invasive brain-machine-interface (BMI) systems for use in restoration and/or augmentation of gait- a primary goal of rehabilitation research. To date, studies examining EEG decoding of activity during gait have been limited to treadmill walking in a controlled environment. However, to be practically viable a BMI system must be applicable for use in everyday locomotor tasks such as over ground walking and turning. Here, we present a novel protocol for non-invasive collection of brain activity (EEG), muscle activity (electromyography (EMG)), and whole-body kinematic data (head, torso, and limb trajectories) during both treadmill and over ground walking tasks. By collecting these data in the uncontrolled environment insight can be gained regarding the feasibility of decoding unconstrained gait and surface EMG from scalp EEG.

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography EEG, Electromyography EMG, and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Development of an effective brain-machine-interface (BMI) system for restoration and rehabilitation of bipedal locomotion requires accurate decoding of user's intent. Here we present a novel experimental protocol and data collection technique for simultaneous non-invasive acquisition of neural activity, muscle activity, and whole-body kinematics during various locomotion tasks and conditions.

Recent  studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal  human walking. Part of this evidence  encompasses studies, ...

fMRI Validation of fNIRS Measurements During a Naturalistic Task

We present a method to compare brain activity recorded with near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in a dance video game task to that recorded in a reduced version of the task using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). Recently, it has been shown that fNIRS can accurately record functional brain activities equivalent to those concurrently recorded with functional magnetic resonance imaging for classic psychophysical tasks and simple finger tapping paradigms. However, an often quoted benefit of fNIRS is that the technique allows for studying neural mechanisms of complex, naturalistic behaviors that are not possible using the constrained environment of fMRI. Our goal was to extend the findings of previous studies that have shown high correlation between concurrently recorded fNIRS and fMRI signals to compare neural recordings obtained in fMRI procedures to those separately obtained in naturalistic fNIRS experiments. Specifically, we developed a modified version of the dance video game Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) to be compatible with both fMRI and fNIRS imaging procedures. In this methodology we explain the modifications to the software and hardware for compatibility with each technique as well as the scanning and calibration procedures used to obtain representative results. The results of the study show a task-related increase in oxyhemoglobin in both modalities and demonstrate that it is possible to replicate the findings of fMRI using fNIRS in a naturalistic task. This technique represents a methodology to compare fMRI imaging paradigms which utilize a reduced-world environment to fNIRS in closer approximation to naturalistic, full-body activities and behaviors. Further development of this technique may apply to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson&#8217;s disease, late states of dementia, or those with magnetic susceptibility which are contraindicated for fMRI scanning.

We present a method to compare functional brain activity recorded during a naturalistic task using fNIRS with activity recorded during fMRI.

We present a method to compare brain activity recorded with near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in a dance video game task to that recorded in a reduced ...

Multifunctional Setup for Studying Human Motor Control Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Electromyography, Motion Capture, and Virtual Reality

The study of neuromuscular control of movement in humans is accomplished with numerous technologies. Non-invasive methods for investigating neuromuscular function include transcranial magnetic stimulation, electromyography, and three-dimensional motion capture. The advent of readily available and cost-effective virtual reality solutions has expanded the capabilities of researchers in recreating &#8220;real-world&#8221; environments and movements in a laboratory setting. Naturalistic movement analysis will not only garner a greater understanding of motor control in healthy individuals, but also permit the design of experiments and rehabilitation strategies that target specific motor impairments (e.g. stroke). The combined use of these tools will lead to increasingly deeper understanding of neural mechanisms of motor control. A key requirement when combining these data acquisition systems is fine temporal correspondence between the various data streams. This protocol describes a multifunctional system&#8217;s overall connectivity, intersystem signaling, and the temporal synchronization of recorded data. Synchronization of the component systems is primarily accomplished through the use of a customizable circuit, readily made with off the shelf components and minimal electronics assembly skills.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation, electromyography, and 3D motion capture are commonly used non-invasive techniques for investigating neuromuscular function in humans. In this paper, we describe a protocol that synchronously samples data generated by all three of these tools along with the unique addition of virtual reality stimulus presentation and feedback.

The study of neuromuscular control of movement in humans is accomplished with numerous technologies. Non-invasive methods for investigating neuromuscular ...

Using Fiberless, Wearable fNIRS to Monitor Brain Activity in Real-world Cognitive Tasks

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to monitor brain activity. Based on neurovascular coupling, fNIRS is able to measure the haemoglobin concentration changes secondary to neuronal activity. Compared to other neuroimaging techniques, fNIRS represents a good compromise in terms of spatial and temporal resolution. Moreover, it is portable, lightweight, less sensitive to motion artifacts and does not impose significant physical restraints. It is therefore appropriate to monitor a wide range of cognitive tasks (e.g., auditory, gait analysis, social interaction) and different age populations (e.g., new-borns, adults, elderly people). The recent development of fiberless fNIRS devices has opened the way to new applications in neuroscience research. This represents a unique opportunity to study functional activity during real-world tests, which can be more sensitive and accurate in assessing cognitive function and dysfunction than lab-based tests. This study explored the use of fiberless fNIRS to monitor brain activity during a real-world prospective memory task. This protocol is performed outside the lab and brain haemoglobin concentration changes are continuously measured over the prefrontal cortex while the subject walks around in order to accomplish several different tasks.

Monitoring brain activity outside the lab without physical constraints presents methodological challenges. A fiberless, wearable functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) system was used to measure brain activity during an ecological prospective memory task. It was demonstrated that this system could be used to monitor brain activity during non-lab based experiments.

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to monitor brain activity. Based on neurovascular ...

Using MazeSuite and Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Study Learning in Spatial Navigation

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted virtual 3D environments, track a participants' behavioral performance within the virtual environment and synchronize with external devices for physiological and neuroimaging measures, including electroencephalogram and eye tracking.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables continuous, noninvasive, and portable monitoring of changes in cerebral blood oxygenation related to human brain functions2-7. Over the last decade fNIR is used to effectively monitor cognitive tasks such as attention, working memory and problem solving7-11. fNIR can be implemented in the form of a wearable and minimally intrusive device; it has the capacity to monitor brain activity in ecologically valid environments. 
Cognitive functions assessed through task performance involve patterns of brain activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that vary from the initial novel task performance, after practice and during retention12. Using positron emission tomography (PET), Van Horn and colleagues found that regional cerebral blood flow was activated in the right frontal lobe during the encoding (i.e., initial na&iuml;ve performance) of spatial navigation of virtual mazes while there was little to no activation of the frontal regions after practice and during retention tests. Furthermore, the effects of contextual interference, a learning phenomenon related to organization of practice, are evident when individuals acquire multiple tasks under different practice schedules13,14. High contextual interference (random practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a non-sequential, unpredictable order. Low contextual interference (blocked practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a predictable order.
Our goal here is twofold: first to illustrate the experimental protocol design process and the use of MazeSuite, and second, to demonstrate the setup and deployment of the fNIR brain activity monitoring system using Cognitive Optical Brain Imaging (COBI) Studio software15. To illustrate our goals, a subsample from a study is reported to show the use of both MazeSuite and COBI Studio in a single experiment. The study involves the assessment of cognitive activity of the PFC during the acquisition and learning of computer maze tasks for blocked and random orders. Two right-handed adults (one male, one female) performed 315 acquisition, 30 retention and 20 transfer trials across four days. Design, implementation, data acquisition and analysis phases of the study were explained with the intention to provide a guideline for future studies.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables noninvasive and portable monitoring of cerebral blood oxygenation changes. This paper summarizes collective use of MazeSuite and fNIR within a cognitive processing learning paradigm.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted ...

Neuroscience

Exploring Cognitive Functions in Babies, Children &amp; Adults with Near Infrared Spectroscopy

An explosion of functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies investigating cortical activation in relation to higher cognitive processes, such as language1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, memory11, and attention12 is underway worldwide involving adults, children and infants 3,4,13,14,15,16,17,18,19 with typical and atypical cognition20,21,22. The contemporary challenge of using fNIRS for cognitive neuroscience is to achieve systematic analyses of data such that they are universally interpretable23,24,25,26, and thus may advance important scientific questions about the functional organization and neural systems underlying human higher cognition.
Existing neuroimaging technologies have either less robust temporal or spatial resolution. Event Related Potentials and Magneto Encephalography (ERP and MEG) have excellent temporal resolution, whereas Positron Emission Tomography and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (PET and fMRI) have better spatial resolution. Using non-ionizing wavelengths of light in the near-infrared range (700-1000 nm), where oxy-hemoglobin is preferentially absorbed by 680 nm and deoxy-hemoglobin is preferentially absorbed by 830 nm (e.g., indeed, the very wavelengths hardwired into the fNIRS Hitachi ETG-400 system illustrated here), fNIRS is well suited for studies of higher cognition because it has both good temporal resolution (~5s) without the use of radiation and good spatial resolution (~4 cm depth), and does not require participants to be in an enclosed structure27,28. Participants cortical activity can be assessed while comfortably seated in an ordinary chair (adults, children) or even seated in mom s lap (infants). Notably, NIRS is uniquely portable (the size of a desktop computer), virtually silent, and can tolerate a participants subtle movement. This is particularly outstanding for the neural study of human language, which necessarily has as one of its key components the movement of the mouth in speech production or the hands in sign language. 
The way in which the hemodynamic response is localized is by an array of laser emitters and detectors. Emitters emit a known intensity of non-ionizing light while detectors detect the amount reflected back from the cortical surface. The closer together the optodes, the greater the spatial resolution, whereas the further apart the optodes, the greater depth of penetration. For the fNIRS Hitachi ETG-4000 system optimal penetration / resolution the optode array is set to 2cm. 
Our goal is to demonstrate our method of acquiring and analyzing fNIRS data to help standardize the field and enable different fNIRS labs worldwide to have a common background.

Exploring Cognitive Functions in Babies, Children & Adults with Near Infrared Spectroscopy

Here we describe a data collection and data analysis method for functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), a novel non-invasive brain imaging system used in cognitive neuroscience, particularly in studying child brain development. This method provides a universal standard of data acquisition and analysis vital to data interpretation and scientific discovery.

An explosion of functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies investigating cortical activation in relation to higher cognitive processes, such as ...

Biology

Conducting Concurrent Electroencephalography and Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Recordings with a Flanker Task

Concurrent EEG and fNIRS recordings offer an excellent opportunity to gain a full understanding of the neural mechanism of cognitive processing by inspecting the relationship between the neural and hemodynamic signals. EEG is an electrophysiological technology that can measure the rapid neuronal activity of the cortex, whereas fNIRS relies on the hemodynamic responses to infer brain activation. The combination of EEG and fNIRS neuroimaging techniques can identify more features and reveal more information associated with the functioning of the brain. In this protocol, fused EEG-fNIRS measurements were performed for concurrent recordings of evoked-electrical potentials and hemodynamic responses during a Flanker task. In addition, the critical steps for setting up the hardware and software system as well as the procedures for data acquisition and analysis were provided and discussed in detail. It is expected that the present protocol can pave a new avenue for improving the understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying various cognitive processes by using the EEG and fNIRS signals.

The present protocol describes how to perform concurrent EEG and fNIRS recordings and how to inspect the relationship between the EEG and fNIRS data.&#160;

Concurrent EEG and fNIRS recordings offer an excellent opportunity to gain a full understanding of the neural mechanism of cognitive processing by ...

Cerebrovascular Reactivity Measurement with Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy

Cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) is the capacity of blood vessels in the brain to alter cerebral blood flow (either with dilation or constriction) in response to chemical or physical stimuli. The amount of reactivity in the cerebral microvasculature depends on the integrity of the capacitance vasculature and is the primary function of endothelial cells. CVR is, therefore, an indicator of the microvasculature&#8217;s physiology and overall health. Imaging methods that can measure CVR are available but can be costly, and require magnetic resonance imaging centers and technical expertise. In this study, we used fNIRS technology to monitor changes of oxyhemoglobin (HbO) and deoxyhemoglobin (HbR) in the cerebral microvasculature to assess the CVR of 15 healthy controls (HC) in response to a vasoactive stimulus (inhaled 5% carbon dioxide or CO2). Our results suggest that this is a promising imaging technology that offers a non-invasive, accurate, portable, and cost-effective method of mapping cortical CVR and associated microvasculature function, resulting from a traumatic brain injury or other conditions associated with cerebral microvasculopathy.

Presented here is a protocol for imaging and measurement of cerebrovascular reactivity in humans with functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS). fNIRS is a novel imaging modality that captures the concentration changes of hemoglobin species in the brain&#8217;s outermost cortex under specific stimuli.

Cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) is the capacity of blood vessels in the brain to alter cerebral blood flow (either with dilation or constriction) in ...

Simultaneous Data Collection of fMRI and fNIRS Measurements Using a Whole-Head Optode Array and Short-Distance Channels

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a portable neuroimaging methodology, more robust to motion and more cost-effective than functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which makes it highly suitable for conducting naturalistic studies of brain function and for use with developmental and clinical populations. Both fNIRS and fMRI methodologies detect changes in cerebral blood oxygenation during functional brain activation, and prior studies have shown high spatial and temporal correspondence between the two signals. There is, however, no quantitative comparison of the two signals collected simultaneously from the same subjects with whole-head fNIRS coverage. This comparison is necessary to comprehensively validate area-level activations and functional connectivity against the fMRI gold standard, which in turn has the potential to facilitate comparisons of the two signals across the lifespan. We address this gap by describing a protocol for simultaneous data collection of fMRI&#160;and fNIRS signals that: i) provides whole-head fNIRS coverage; ii) includes short-distance measurements for regression of the non-cortical, systemic physiological signal; and iii) implements two different methods for optode-to-scalp co-registration of fNIRS measurements. fMRI and fNIRS data from three subjects are presented, and recommendations for adapting the protocol to test developmental and clinical populations are discussed. The current setup with adults allows scanning sessions for an average of approximately 40 min, which includes both functional and structural scans. The protocol outlines the steps required to adapt the fNIRS equipment for use in the magnetic resonance (MR) environment, provides recommendations for both data recording and optode-to-scalp co-registration, and discusses potential modifications of the protocol to fit the specifics of the available MR-safe fNIRS system. Representative subject-specific responses from a flashing-checkerboard task illustrate the feasibility of the protocol to measure whole-head fNIRS signals in the MR environment. This protocol will be particularly relevant for researchers interested in validating fNIRS signals against fMRI across the lifespan.

We present a method for simultaneously collecting fMRI and fNIRS signals from the same subjects with whole-head fNIRS coverage. The protocol has been tested with three young adults and can be adapted for data collection for developmental studies and clinical populations.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a portable neuroimaging methodology, more robust to motion and more cost-effective than functional ...

Evaluating Brain Activation by fNIRS During a Lower Limb Robotic Therapy Session

An Experiment Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Robot-Assisted Multi-Joint Pointing Movements of the Lower Limb

Stroke affects approximately 17 million individuals worldwide each year and is a leading cause of long-term disability. Robotic therapy has shown promise in helping stroke patients regain lost motor functions. One potential avenue for increasing the understanding of how motor recovery occurs is to study brain activation during the movements that are targeted by therapy in healthy individuals. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) has emerged as a promising neuroimaging technique for examining neural underpinnings of motor function. This study aimed to investigate fNIRS neural correlates of complex lower limb movements in healthy subjects. Participants were asked to perform cycles of rest and movement for 6 min using a robotic device for motor rehabilitation. The task required coordinated knee and ankle joint movements to point to targets displayed on a computer screen. Two experimental conditions with different levels of movement assistance provided by the robot were explored. The results showed that the fNIRS protocol effectively detected brain regions associated with motor control during the task. Notably, all subjects exhibited greater activation in the contralateral premotor area during the no-assistance condition compared to the assisted condition. In conclusion, fNIRS appears to be a valuable approach for detecting changes in oxyhemoglobin concentration associated with multi-joint pointing movements of the lower limb. This research might contribute to the understanding of stroke motor recovery mechanisms and might pave the way for improved rehabilitation treatments for stroke patients. However, further research is needed to fully elucidate the potential of fNIRS in studying motor function and its applications in clinical settings.

Author Spotlight: Assessing Brain Activity in Robotic-Assisted Lower Limb Rehabilitation Using fNIRS

It is estimated that 1 in 6 individuals worldwide will have a stroke in their lifetime, causing long-term disability, whose rehabilitation mechanisms are still poorly understood. This study proposes a protocol to evaluate brain activation by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during a lower limb robotic therapy session.

Stroke affects approximately 17 million individuals worldwide each year and is a leading cause of long-term disability. Robotic therapy has shown promise ...

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy of the Sensory and Motor Brain Regions with Simultaneous Kinematic and EMG Monitoring During Motor Tasks

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