This model was developed with the support of the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS)/the National Institute of Health (NIH) grant 1P20GM103652 (Project# 3) (to MRA) and the American Heart Association (AHA) Grant-in-Aid 14GRNT20460291 (to MRA); the Brazilian government grant CAPES (to KR and FR); and a Brown University LINK award (to IM). We also acknowledge the outstanding technical support from our veterinarians and animal facility staff.

This animal protocol has been reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at Rhode Island Hospital.
1. Anesthesia and Intubation
<ol>
	<li>Weigh the mouse to calculate the dosage of post-operative pain medication.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse in an induction chamber and deliver 4% isoflurane for 9 - 10 min, monitoring the animal throughout. Turn on a hot bead sterilizer so that the apparatus can preheat to approximately 250 &#176;C. Preheating will take 15 - 20 min.</li>
	<li>Once the mouse reaches a deep plane of anesthesia, with a breathing rate of approximately 32 breaths/min, place the mouse supine on a Styrofoam board and use an elastic band secured under the top incisors to hold the mouth open. Confirm sedation by performing a toe pinch. Position a high-intensity illuminator above the mouse so that the oropharynx can be visualized.</li>
	<li>Use curved forceps to open the jaw and another pair of forceps to lift the tongue out of the way. Be sure to intubate while positioned at or slightly below eye-level with the body of the mouse. The use of surgical loupes is recommended.</li>
	<li>Visualize the opening and closing of the vocal cords. When open, insert a 20-gauge, 1-in intravenous (IV) catheter with a blunt-tip needle introducer. Use the needle to guide the catheter to the tracheal opening, but avoid inserting the needle into the trachea. Verification of correct placement can be done using a plastic transfer pipette.</li>
	<li>Transfer the intubated mouse to an operating surface equipped with a heating device. Connect the mouse to a small rodent ventilator set to a stroke volume of 150 &#181;L/stroke and a stroke rate of 130 strokes/min.</li>
	<li>Deliver 2.5% isoflurane. Verify the intubation by checking for bilateral chest rise. Verify anesthesia by performing a toe pinch. The mouse may need 5 - 10 min on the ventilator to become fully anesthetized.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparing the Mouse
<ol>
	<li>Tape down the intubation tube at the connecting site between the ventilator and the IV catheter. Tape down the extremities. Place sterile lubricating drops on the eyes.</li>
	<li>Trim the ventral left side of the thorax with an electric razor. Dust off the shaved fur with dry wipes and apply a small layer of hair removal cream using a sterile cotton swab. The cream should remain in contact with the hair follicles for approximately 30 - 45 s.</li>
	<li>While the cream processes, place three sterile cotton swabs in three 1.5-mL tubes filled with Betadine to soak. Using wipes moistened with distilled water, gently wipe away the cream and fur.</li>
	<li>Clean the surgical field three times, alternating Betadine and sterile 70% isopropanol prep pads, cleaning in a circular motion moving from center to periphery. Place a sterile drape with a quarter-sized hole over the surgical field of the mouse.</li>
	<li>Clean the area surrounding the mouse with 70% ethanol. Verify anesthesia once more with a toe pinch.</li>
</ol>
3. LAD Ligation
<ol>
	<li>Place the autoclaved surgical instruments in hot bead sterilizer preheated to 250 &#176;C for approximately 20 s. Place the sterilized instruments on sterile autoclaved surgical drape. Don surgical gloves.</li>
	<li>Use fine-tip forceps to gently lift the skin at a point approximately 5 mm to the left of the prominent xiphoid cartilage. Use a surgical scalpel with a No. 10 blade to create a vertical incision in the skin from this point upwards, to the level of the manubrium.</li>
	<li>Use curved forceps to gently separate the skin and muscle layers. Open the muscle layer, following the skin incision. Insert two 5-0 polypropylene sutures through the muscle layer, one on either side of the incision, and secure the sutures temporarily with clamps to hold the muscle layer open.</li>
	<li>Identify and make an incision in the third intercostal space, following the natural angle of the ribcage. Remove the tape from the left extremities of the mouse and secure its left rear foot to its right rear foot with tape. Cut a longer piece of tape and secure its left front foot to the operating surface in a slightly elevated position. Clean the gloves with 70% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Use a retractor to gently spread apart the 3rd and 4th ribs. Cut a small section of sterile gauze, approximately 1 in x &#189; in, and dip it in sterile 0.9% saline. Squeeze out the excess saline and use forceps to gently insert the gauze against the left lung to prevent accidental lung damage during the procedure.</li>
	<li>Gently remove the thin pericardium with forceps.</li>
	<li>Tear a small amount of cotton off a sterile cotton swab and roll it into a small ball. Dip this cotton ball into sterile 0.9% saline and gently swab over the surface of the heart to appreciate the arteries. Gently push the left auricle upwards and locate the coronary arteries underneath.</li>
	<li>Identify the LAD and pass an 8-0 nylon suture under the LAD; complete two throws to secure the ligation. If the ligation is successful, the left ventricle distal from the ligature will blanch.</li>
	<li>Using forceps, remove the gauze inserted earlier, and then gently remove the retractor. Insert a 6-in, 25-gauge flexible tube attached to a 25-gauge needle into the chest cavity through the thoracotomy opening. Advance approximately 1 - 2 in of tubing into the space above the left lung. Return the mouse to a supine position and clean the gloves with 70% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Use 5-0 polypropylene sutures in a simple interrupted pattern to close the ribcage, keeping the chest tube in place. Remove the two sutures holding the muscle layer open. Use 5-0 polypropylene sutures in a simple continuous pattern to close the muscle layer, again keeping the chest tube in place.</li>
	<li>Attach a 1-mL syringe to the 25-gauge needle on the chest tube. Gently pull upwards on the plunger while simultaneously gradually extracting the chest tube from the chest cavity with forceps. Extract the tubing slowly, as this step removes excess air and blood, which would otherwise become trapped in the chest cavity and result in a pneumothorax.</li>
	<li>Once the syringe is full, detach the syringe from the needle and dispose of the waste in a waste beaker or sink. Continue this process until the chest tube is completely extracted. Ensure that the chest is tightly sealed.</li>
	<li>Decrease the isoflurane to 1.5%. Close the skin with 4-0 polypropylene sutures in a simple interrupted pattern. Turn the isoflurane vaporizer off.</li>
	<li>Administer 0.1 mg/mL buprenorphine in 0.9% saline via an intraperitoneal (IP) injection. Topically apply 2 mg/mL Lidocaine with 2 mg/mL Bupivacaine in 0.9% saline to the incision. Administer between 200 - 500 &#181;L of 0.9% saline via a subcutaneous injection, scaling the saline amount to the weight of the mouse.</li>
	<li>Wait 5 min after administering the pain medications to remove the mouse from the intubation tube. This aids in the transition off the ventilator.
	<ol>
		<li>If the mouse does not have a bilateral chest rise once off the ventilator, perform needle decompression. To do this, introduce a 25-gauge sterile needle and a 1-mL syringe between the 3rd and 4th ribs until it enters the thoracic cavity, denoted by a sudden decrease in resistance. Pull up gently on the plunger to remove excess air.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>When the mouse demonstrates an adequate bilateral breathing rate and depth and responds to a toe pinch, place the mouse in a clean recovery cage under a heat lamp. Provide the mouse with moist food and a water bottle, monitoring in a laminar flow hood for 15 - 20 min. Monitor for an exaggerated breathing effort, excessive bleeding, or other potentially life-threatening complications.</li>
	<li>For the next three days, administer 0.1 mg/mL buprenorphine pain medication via an IP injection twice daily. Monitor the mouse daily.</li>
</ol>

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	<li>Hausenloy, D. J., Yellon, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+directions+for+protecting+the+heart+against+ischaemia-reperfusion+injury:+targeting+the+Reperfusion+Injury+Salvage+Kinase+(RISK)-pathway.">New directions for protecting the heart against ischaemia-reperfusion injury: targeting the Reperfusion Injury Salvage Kinase (RISK)-pathway.</a> Cardiovasc Res. 61 (3), 448-460 (2004).</li><li>Roffi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=2015+ESC+Guidelines+for+the+management+of+acute+coronary+syndromes+in+patients+presenting+without+persistent+ST-segment+elevation.">2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation.</a> Eur Heart J. 37 (3), 267-315 (2015).</li><li>Kumar, A., Cannon, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acute+Coronary+Syndromes:+Diagnosis+and+Management,+Part+I.">Acute Coronary Syndromes: Diagnosis and Management, Part I.</a> Mayo Clin Proc. 84 (10), 917-938 (2009).</li><li>Eitan, A., Nikolsky, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antithrombotic+therapy+in+patients+with+acute+coronary+syndromes:+how+to+make+the+right+choice.">Antithrombotic therapy in patients with acute coronary syndromes: how to make the right choice.</a> Minerva Med. 104 (4), 357-381 (2013).</li><li>Abbate, A., Bussani, R., Amin, M. S., Vetrovec, G. 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K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acute+myocardial+infarction+in+rats.">Acute myocardial infarction in rats.</a> Journal of visualized experiments : J Vis Exp. (48), (2011).</li><li>Ferrera, R., Benhabbouche, S., Bopassa, J. 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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

With an increasing use of the MI model in laboratories, the described procedure seeks to increase the efficiency and survival rate of the mice while minimizing their post-operative pain and discomfort. This protocol strives to minimize mortality by making numerous improvements to various aspects of the LAD ligation procedure. There are a few distinctions. Some murine intubation studies that utilize ketamine and xylazine along with isoflurane for induction, due to the benefit of their longer duration of a...

Coronary disease, or ACS, is the most prevalent cardiovascular event and will be considered the main cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide in 20201. The cause of ACS is the presence of a myocardial thrombosis due to the rupture of a coronary atherosclerotic plaque that blocks or reduces blood flow to the heart tissue2. Therefore, there are clinical signs consistent with the presence of acute myocardial ischemia, such as myocardial infarction (MI)3,4. MI leads to a loss in mass of the cardiomyocytes and a progression to pathological ventricular remodeling, which can lead to ventricular dysfunction and heart failure5,6.
One of the most effective ways to study IHD has been to mimic human myocardial infarction in an animal model. This is achieved by occluding the LAD in mice. Using this model, we study how the heart can be protected from the damage resulting from IHD.
Over the last decade, researchers have shifted from using larger animal models to smaller animals, including the shift from rats to mice. The smaller mouse model is starting to be preferred for many reasons, including their small size, large litter size, low cost to maintain, and short gestation period, as well as for the expansive availability of transgenic and gene knockout models7. Although mice are small in size, new surgical instruments specifically designed for them have aided in this development. Our method utilizes these new surgical instruments.
While several methods implement an invasive tracheotomy, we use a less invasive method of endotracheal intubation. Using overhead illumination of the oropharynx, we intubate without creating any incisions, providing a safer and less traumatic experience for the animal. The mouse is then placed on a ventilator and kept on isoflurane during the entire procedure. Due to the short duration of anesthesia produced by the drug, it only takes a few minutes for the animal to recover from the anesthetic once it is discontinued. Our surgical model also includes a minimally invasive thoracentesis. The careful removal of blood and excess air from the chest cavity using thoracentesis through the original thoracotomy incision has addressed a common post-operative complication of the LAD ligation: the tension pneumothorax. This method, which eliminates the need for the two additional incisions used in other methods-one for the tracheotomy and another for the thoracentesis-has yielded fewer post-surgical complications and has drastically reduced mortality.

<table><tbody><tr><td>High-Intensity Light Source</td><td>Harvard Apparatus</td><td>72-0215</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SurgiSuite Operating Platform</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>SurgiSuite</td><td>Uses a rechargeable, battery-operated far infrared warming pad. Charge overnight before surgery.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>SurgiSuite LED Lighting Kit</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>SURGI-5003</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hot Bead Sterilizer</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>18000-45</td><td>Preheating takes 15 - 20 min. Instruments take 20 s to sterilize.</td></tr><tr><td>Small Rodent Anesthesia System</td><td>VetEquip Inc.</td><td>901810</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Isofluorane</td><td>Piramal Enterprises</td><td>66794-017-10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Buprenorphine</td><td>Rhode Island Hospital Pharmacy</td><td>NDC 12496-0757-1, 12496-0757-5</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical Loupes</td><td>Roboz</td><td>RS-6687</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Small Rodent Ventilator</td><td>Harvard Apparatus</td><td>73-0043</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lubricating Drops</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>19-898-350</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Electric Razor</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>CL 9990-1201</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hair Removal Cream</td><td>Nair</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Medical Tape</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>18-999-380</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Betadine</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>19-027136</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>70% Isopropanol Wipes</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>22-363-750</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical Drapes</td><td>Braintree</td><td>SP-TS</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical Gloves</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>18999102D</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5-0 Polypropylene Sutures&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Ethicon</td><td>8630G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>8-0 Nylon Sutures</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>12051-08</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Platinum-Cured Tubing</td><td>Harvard Apparatus</td><td>72-1042&amp;nbsp;</td><td>0.3 mm inside diameter x 0.6 mm outside diameter</td></tr><tr><td>0.9% Saline</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>19-310-207</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4-0 Polypropylene Sutures</td><td>Ethicon</td><td>8631G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1 CC Syringe with 25-Gauge Needle&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>14-826-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scissors</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INSS600225</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Forceps</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS700100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cotton Swabs</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>23-400-118</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IV Catheter, 20-Gauge</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>&amp;nbsp;NC9892181</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Retractor</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 750369</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Forceps</td><td>Fine Science Tools</td><td>11003-12</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dissecting Forceps, Straight</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 700101</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dissecting Forceps, Curved</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 700103</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hemostatic Forceps, Straight</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 750451</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hemostatic Forceps, Curved</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 750452</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue Forceps</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 700131</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Needle Holder</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 600109</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scissors&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Kent Scientific Corporation</td><td>INS 600225</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

murine left anterior descending (lad) coronary artery ligation: an improved and simplified model for myocardial infarction

Ischemic heart disease (IHD), or acute coronary syndrome (ACS), is one of the leading causes of death in the United States. IHD is characterized by reduced blood supply to the heart, resulting in the loss of oxygen to and the ensuing necrosis of the heart muscle. The MI model has gained popularity for its use as a short-term ischemia-reperfusion model and a long-term permanent ligation model. Below, we describe a reliable method for the permanent ligation of the LAD. With mouse genetic engineering technology becoming more advanced, and with an increasing availability of quality murine surgical instruments, the mouse has become a popular model for MI surgeries. Our surgical model incorporates the use of an easily reversible anesthetic for the rapid recovery of the mouse; a minimally invasive endotracheal intubation without involving a tracheotomy; and a thoracentesis through the original thoracotomy site without creating an additional incision in the chest, as is done in some other methods, to effectively remove excess blood and air from the chest cavity. This method is comparatively less invasive than other methods, which dramatically reduces surgical and post-surgical complications and mortality and improves reproducibility.

The mice are euthanized twenty-eight days after surgery, and the hearts are harvested and examined. The mice are anesthetized with 50 - 75 mg/kg ketamine and 5 - 10 mg/kg xylazine. When the animal is under adequate anesthesia, the thoracic cavity is opened, and using a 23-gauge needle, cold potassium chloride (KCL, 30 mM) is injected into the posterior basal region of the heart. The heart is arrested in diastole. For further validation of the ligation, the heart is removed from the animal...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Murine Left Anterior Descending LAD Coronary Artery Ligation: An Improved and Simplified Model for Myocardial Infarction at JoVE.com

Murine Left Anterior Descending LAD Coronary Artery Ligation: An Improved and Simplified Model for Myocardial Infarction

We provide a reliable method for left anterior descending artery (LAD) ligation in a mouse model. This method is comparatively less invasive than other methods, involving endotracheal intubation, a left-sided thoracotomy approach, and thoracentesis. This method can be used as a model for both acute and chronic myocardial infarction (MI).

Murine Left Anterior Descending (LAD) Coronary Artery Ligation: An Improved and Simplified Model for Myocardial Infarction

Ischemic heart disease (IHD), or acute coronary syndrome (ACS), is one of the leading causes of death in the United States. IHD is characterized by ...

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24.5K Views.  Rhode Island Hospital, Brown University Warren Alpert Medical School. We provide a reliable method for left anterior descending artery (LAD) ligation in a mouse model. This method is comparatively less invasive than other methods, involving endotracheal intubation, a left-sided thoracotomy approach, and thoracentesis. This method can be used as a model for both acute and chronic myocardial infarction (MI).

Video: Murine Left Anterior Descending LAD Coronary Artery Ligation: An Improved and Simplified Model for Myocardial Infarction

Coronary Artery Ligation and Intramyocardial Injection in a Murine Model of Infarction

Mouse models are a valuable tool for studying acute injury and chronic remodeling of the myocardium in vivo. With the advent of genetic modifications to the whole organism or the myocardium and an array of biological and/or synthetic materials, there is great potential for any combination of these to assuage the extent of acute ischemic injury and impede the onset of heart failure pursuant to myocardial remodeling. 
Here we present the methods and materials used to reliably perform this microsurgery and the modifications involved for temporary (with reperfusion) or permanent coronary artery occlusion studies as well as intramyocardial injections. The effects on the heart that can be seen during the procedure and at the termination of the experiment in addition to histological evaluation will verify efficacy. 
Briefly, surgical preparation involves anesthetizing the mice, removing the fur on the chest, and then disinfecting the surgical area. Intratracheal intubation is achieved by transesophageal illumination using a fiber optic light. The tubing is then connected to a ventilator. An incision made on the chest exposes the pectoral muscles which will be cut to view the ribs. For ischemia/reperfusion studies, a 1 cm piece of PE tubing placed over the heart is used to tie the ligature to so that occlusion/reperfusion can be customized. For intramyocardial injections, a Hamilton syringe with sterile 30gauge beveled needle is used. When the myocardial manipulations are complete, the rib cage, the pectoral muscles, and the skin are closed sequentially. Line block analgesia is effected by 0.25% marcaine in sterile saline which is applied to muscle layer prior to closure of the skin. The mice are given a subcutaneous injection of saline and placed in a warming chamber until they are sternally recumbent. They are then returned to the vivarium and housed under standard conditions until the time of tissue collection. At the time of sacrifice, the mice are anesthetized, the heart is arrested in diastole with KCl or BDM, rinsed with saline, and immersed in fixative. Subsequently, routine procedures for processing, embedding, sectioning, and histological staining are performed. 
Nonsurgical intubation of a mouse and the microsurgical manipulations described make this a technically challenging model to learn and achieve reproducibility. These procedures, combined with the difficulty in performing consistent manipulations of the ligature for timed occlusion(s) and reperfusion or intramyocardial injections, can also affect the survival rate so optimization and consistency are critical.

Numerous genetic manipulations and/or intramyocardial injections of genes, proteins, cells, and/or biomaterials are superimposed upon the dimension of time in studies of acute ischemia/ reperfusion injury and chronic remodeling in mice. This video illustrates the microsurgical procedures for ischemia/reperfusion, permanent coronary artery ligation, and intramyocardial injection studies.

Mouse models are a valuable tool for studying acute injury and chronic remodeling of the myocardium in vivo.  With the advent of genetic modifications to ...

Modified Technique for Coronary Artery Ligation in Mice

Myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the most important causes of mortality in humans1-3. In order to improve morbidity and mortality in patients with MI we need better knowledge about pathophysiology of myocardial ischemia. This knowledge may be valuable to define new therapeutic targets for innovative cardiovascular therapies4. Experimental MI model in mice is an increasingly popular small-animal model in preclinical research in which MI is induced by means of permanent or temporary ligation of left coronary artery (LCA)5. In this video, we describe the step-by-step method of how to induce experimental MI in mice.
The animal is first anesthetized with 2% isoflurane. The unconscious mouse is then intubated and connected to a ventilator for artificial ventilation. The left chest is shaved and 1.5 cm incision along mid-axillary line is made in the skin. The left pectoralis major muscle is bluntly dissociated until the ribs are exposed. The muscle layers are pulled aside and fixed with an eyelid-retractor. After these preparations, left thoracotomy is performed between the third and fourth ribs in order to visualize the anterior surface of the heart and left lung. The proximal segment of LCA artery is then ligated with a 7-0 ethilon suture which typically induces an infarct size ~40% of left ventricle. At the end, the chest is closed and the animals receive postoperative analgesia (Temgesic, 0.3 mg/50 ml, ip). The animals are kept in a warm cage until spontaneous recovery.

The surgical procedure used to induce experimental myocardial infarction in mice begins with left thoracotomy between the third and the fourth ribs in order to visualize the anterior surface of the heart and left lung. The left coronary artery is ligated, the chest is closed and the mouse is allowed to recover spontaneously.

Myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the most important causes of mortality in humans1-3. In order to improve morbidity and mortality in patients with MI ...

LAD-Ligation: A Murine Model of Myocardial Infarction

Research models of infarction and myocardial ischemia are essential to investigate the acute and chronic pathobiological and pathophysiological processes in myocardial ischemia and to develop and optimize future treatment.
Two different methods of creating myocardial ischemia are performed in laboratory rodents. The first method is to create cryo infarction, a fast but inaccurate technique, where a cryo-pen is applied on the surface of the heart (1-3). Using this method the scientist can not guarantee that the cryo-scar leads to ischemia, also a vast myocardial injury is created that shows pathophysiological side effects that are not related to myocardial infarction. The second method is the permanent ligation of the left anterior descending artery (LAD). Here the LAD is ligated with one single stitch, forming an ischemia that can be seen almost immediately. By closing the LAD, no further blood flow is permitted in that area, while the surrounding myocardial tissue is nearly not affected. This surgical procedure imitates the pathobiological and pathophysiological aspects occurring in infarction-related myocardial ischemia.
The method introduced in this video demonstrates the surgical procedure of a mouse infarction model by ligating the LAD. This model is convenient for pathobiological and pathophysiological as well as immunobiological studies on cardiac infarction. The shown technique provides high accuracy and correlates well with histological sections.

This video demonstrates how to use a fast and reliable model to study pathobiological and pathophysiological processes of myocardial ischemia.

Research models of infarction and myocardial ischemia are essential to investigate the acute and chronic pathobiological and pathophysiological processes ...

Biology

A Murine Model of Myocardial Ischemia-reperfusion Injury through Ligation of the Left Anterior Descending Artery

Acute or chronic myocardial infarction (MI) are cardiovascular events resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Establishing the pathological mechanisms at work during MI and developing effective therapeutic approaches requires methodology to reproducibly simulate the clinical incidence and reflect the pathophysiological changes associated with MI. Here, we describe a surgical method to induce MI in mouse models that can be used for short-term ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury as well as permanent ligation. The major advantage of this method is to facilitate location of the left anterior descending artery (LAD) to allow for accurate ligation of this artery to induce ischemia in the left ventricle of the mouse heart. Accurate positioning of the ligature on the LAD increases reproducibility of infarct size and thus produces more reliable results. Greater precision in placement of the ligature will improve the standard surgical approaches to simulate MI in mice, thus reducing the number of experimental animals necessary for statistically relevant studies and improving our understanding of the mechanisms producing cardiac dysfunction following MI. This mouse model of MI is also useful for the preclinical testing of treatments targeting myocardial damage following MI.

We introduce a surgical method to induce experimental ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury to simulate myocardial infarction (MI) in mouse models that allows for more clarity in positioning of the ligation on the left anterior descending artery (LAD) to increase the reproducibility of MI experiments in mice.

Acute or chronic myocardial infarction (MI) are cardiovascular events resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Establishing the pathological mechanisms ...

Permanent Ligation of the Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery in Mice: A Model of Post-myocardial Infarction Remodelling and Heart Failure

Heart failure is a syndrome in which the heart fails to pump blood at a rate commensurate with cellular oxygen requirements at rest or during stress. It is characterized by fluid retention, shortness of breath, and fatigue, in particular on exertion. Heart failure is a growing public health problem, the leading cause of hospitalization, and a major cause of mortality. Ischemic heart disease is the main cause of heart failure.
Ventricular remodelling refers to changes in structure, size, and shape of the left ventricle. This architectural remodelling of the left ventricle is induced by injury (e.g., myocardial infarction), by pressure overload (e.g., systemic arterial hypertension or aortic stenosis), or by volume overload. Since ventricular remodelling affects wall stress, it has a profound impact on cardiac function and on the development of heart failure. A model of permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery in mice is used to investigate ventricular remodelling and cardiac function post-myocardial infarction. This model is fundamentally different in terms of objectives and pathophysiological relevance compared to the model of transient ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. In this latter model of ischemia/reperfusion injury, the initial extent of the infarct may be modulated by factors that affect myocardial salvage following reperfusion. In contrast, the infarct area at 24 hr after permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery is fixed. Cardiac function in this model will be affected by 1) the process of infarct expansion, infarct healing, and scar formation; and 2) the concomitant development of left ventricular dilatation, cardiac hypertrophy, and ventricular remodelling.
Besides the model of permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery, the technique of invasive hemodynamic measurements in mice is presented in detail.

Heart failure is the leading cause of hospitalization and a major cause of mortality. A model of permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery in mice is applied to investigate ventricular remodelling and cardiac dysfunction post-myocardial infarction. The technique of invasive hemodynamic measurements in mice is presented.

Heart failure is a syndrome in which the heart fails to pump blood at a rate commensurate with cellular oxygen requirements at rest or during stress. It ...

Murine Myocardial Infarction Model using Permanent Ligation of Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery

Myocardial infarction (MI) and acute coronary diseases are among the most prominent causes of death in population with western lifestyle. The murine models of MI with permanent ligation of left-anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery closely mimics MI in humans. Murine models benefit from the extensive genetic engineering available nowadays. Here we propose a reproducible murine surgical model of myocardial infarction by permanent LAD coronary ligation. Our technique comprises anesthesia with ketamine/xylazine that can be rapidly reversed by administration of an antagonist, intubation without tracheotomy for mechanical-assisted ventilation, ventilation with application of extrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to avoid alveolar collapse, a thoracotomy method limiting to the minimum surgical lesions made to skeletal muscles, and lung inflation without thoracentesis. This method is sparsely invasive, reproducible and reduces post-surgery mortality and complications.

Herein we describe a surgical procedure showing how to achieve permanent ligation of the left-anterior descending coronary artery in mice. This model is of high relevance to investigate the pathophysiology of myocardial infarction and the concomitant biological processes.

Myocardial infarction (MI) and acute coronary diseases are among the most prominent causes of death in population with western lifestyle. The murine ...

Induction of Myocardial Infarction and Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Mice

Acute myocardial infarction is a common cardiovascular disease with high mortality. Myocardial reperfusion injury can counteract the beneficial effects of heart reflow and induce secondary myocardial injury. A simple and reproducible model of myocardial infarction and myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury is a good tool for researchers. Here, a customizable method to create a myocardial infarction (MI) model and MIRI by precision ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) through micromanipulation is described. Accurate and reproducible ligature positioning of the LAD helps obtain consistent results for heart injury. ST-segment changes can help to identify model accuracy. The serum level of cardiac troponin T (cTnT) is used to assess the myocardial injury, cardiac ultrasound is employed to evaluate the myocardial systolic function, and Evans-Blue/triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining is used to measure infarct size. In general, this protocol reduces procedure duration, ensures controllable infarct size, and improves mouse survival.

Here we describe a simple and reproducible method that can induce myocardial infarction or myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in mice by precision ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery through micromanipulation.

Acute myocardial infarction is a common cardiovascular disease with high mortality. Myocardial reperfusion injury can counteract the beneficial effects of ...

Left Coronary Artery Ligation: A Surgical Murine Model of Myocardial Infarction

Ischemic heart disease and subsequent myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the leading causes of mortality in the United States and around the world. In order to explore the pathophysiological changes after myocardial infarction and design future treatments, research models of MI are required. Permanent ligation of the left coronary artery (LCA) in mice is a popular model to investigate cardiac function and ventricular remodeling post MI. Here we describe a less invasive, reliable, and reproducible surgical murine MI model by permanent ligation of the LCA. Our surgical model comprises of an easily reversible general anesthesia, endotracheal intubation that does not require a tracheotomy, and a thoracotomy. Electrocardiography and troponin measurement should be performed to ensure MI. Echocardiography at day 28 after MI will discern heart function and heart failure parameters. The degree of cardiac fibrosis can be evaluated by Masson's trichrome staining and cardiac MRI. This MI model is useful for studying the pathophysiological and immunological alterations after MI.

Presented here is a surgical procedure for permanent ligation of the left coronary artery in mice. This model can be used to investigate the pathophysiology and associated inflammatory response after myocardial infarction.

Ischemic heart disease and subsequent myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the leading causes of mortality in the United States and around the world. In ...

Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery Ligation for Ischemia-Reperfusion Research: Model Improvement via Technical Modifications and Quality Control

Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death globally. Complete cessation of blood flow in coronary arteries causes ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), resulting in cardiogenic shock and fatal arrhythmia, which are associated with high mortality. Primary coronary intervention (PCI) for recanalizing the coronary artery significantly improves the outcomes of STEMI, but advancements made in shortening the door-to-balloon time have failed to reduce in-hospital mortality, suggesting that additional therapeutic strategies are required. Left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) ligation in rats is an animal model for acute myocardial IR research that is comparable to the clinical scenario in which rapid coronary recanalization through PCI is used for STEMI; however, PCI-induced STEMI is a technically challenging and complicated operation associated with high mortality and great variation in infarction size. We identified the ideal position for LAD ligation, created a gadget to control a snare loop, and supported a modified surgical maneuver, thereby reducing tissue damage, to establish a reliable and reproducible acute myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (IR) research protocol for rats. This is a non-survival surgery. We also propose a method for validating the quality of study results, which is a critical step for determining the accuracy of subsequent biochemical analyses.

Herein, we present a protocol focusing on the quality control of the left anterior descending coronary artery ligation by technically modifying the traditional procedure in rats for acute myocardial ischemia-reperfusion research.

Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death globally. Complete cessation of blood flow in coronary arteries causes ST-segment elevation ...

An Experimental Model of Myocardial Infarction for Studying Cardiac Repair and Remodeling in Knockout Mice

Cardiovascular disease is the most prevalent cause of death in Western countries, with acute myocardial infarction (MI) being the most prevalent form. This paper describes a protocol for studying the role of galectin 3 (Gal-3) in the temporal evolution of cardiac healing and remodeling in an experimental animal model of MI. 
The procedures described include an experimental model of MI with a permanent coronary ligature in male C57BL/6J (control) and Gal-3 knockout (KO) mice, an echocardiography procedure to study cardiac remodeling and systolic function in vivo, a histological evaluation of interstitial myocardial fibrosis with picrosirius red-stained and rhodamine-conjugated lectin-stained sections for studying myocyte hypertrophy by the cross-sectional area (MCSA), and the quantification of infarct size and cardiac remodeling (scar thinning, septum thickness, and expansion index) by planimetry in slices stained with Masson's trichrome and triphenyl tetrazolium chloride. Gal-3 KO mice with MI showed disrupted cardiac remodeling and an increase in the scar thinning ratio and the expansion index. At the onset of MI, myocardial function and cardiac remodeling were also severely affected. At 4 weeks post MI, the natural evolution of fibrosis in infarcted Gal-3 KO mice was also affected. 
In summary, the experimental model of MI is a suitable model for studying the temporal evolution of cardiac repair and remodeling in mice with the genetic deletion of Gal-3 and other animal models. The lack of Gal-3 affects the dynamics of cardiac repair and disrupts the evolution of cardiac remodeling and function after MI.

Here, we describe an experimental model of myocardial infarction, an echocardiography procedure to study cardiac remodeling and function, and procedures for quantifying fibrosis and hypertrophy in picrosirius red-stained and rhodamine-stained sections, as well as the infarct size and expansion index in slices stained with Masson's trichrome.

Cardiovascular disease is the most prevalent cause of death in Western countries, with acute myocardial infarction (MI) being the most prevalent form. ...

Murine Left Anterior Descending (LAD) Coronary Artery Ligation: An Improved and Simplified Model for Myocardial Infarction

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