This research was supported by the Climate Change Research Hub of KAIST (grant No. N11160012), the Leading Foreign Research Institute Recruitment Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning (grant No. 2011-0030065), the Leading Human Resource Training Program of Regional Neo Industry through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning (grant no. NRF-2016H1D5A1910603). Their support is greatly appreciated.

1. Material Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of the composite material 
	NOTE: CAUTION, Please consult all relevant material safety data sheets (MSDS) before use. Several of the chemicals used in these methods may be toxic and carcinogenic. Nanomaterials may have additional hazards compared to their bulk counterparts. Please use all appropriate safety practices when performing an experiment, including the use of engineering controls (fume hood, glove box) and personal protective equipment (safety glasses, gloves, lab coat, full-length pants, closed-toe shoes). 
	NOTE: Depending on the application, the type of reinforcing fiber can be one or a combination of the following: unidirectional fiber, woven fabric, non-woven felt, chopped fiber.
	<ol>
		<li>Unidirectional fiber type
		<ol>
			<li>Use pre-impregnated composite material (prepreg), as it is the most convenient to use.</li>
			<li>Stack the prepreg in a stacking sequence containing both 0 &#176; and 90 &#176; to avoid splitting. For example, stack into [03/903]s.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Woven fabric type
		<ol>
			<li>Prepare the woven carbon fabric and film-type epoxy resin. If using a prepreg, skip steps 1.1.2.1 to 1.1.2.6.</li>
			<li>Cleanse the fabric with 99.5% acetone or another solvent for degreasing. Take caution when handling the fabric after cleaning to avoid contamination. Place the fabric on a clean surface or lint-free wipe.</li>
			<li>Remove the solvent by drying under ambient conditions for 10 min.</li>
			<li>Peel off the backup film of the epoxy resin and attach 1 ply of film-type epoxy to 1 ply of carbon fabric.</li>
			<li>Place the epoxy-attached carbon fabric on a hot plate that is pre-heated to 70 &#176;C for 10 s for pre-impregnation.</li>
			<li>Cool the prepared prepreg in ambient conditions for 10 min and peel off the other backup film.</li>
			<li>Stack the fabric with the desired stacking sequence; for example, stack into [0]3.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Non-woven felt
		<ol>
			<li>Prepare the non-woven felt.</li>
			<li>Cleanse the felt with 99.5% acetone or another solvent for degreasing. Take caution when handling the felt after cleansing to avoid contamination. Place the felt on a clean surface or lint-free wipe.</li>
			<li>Peel off the backup film of the epoxy resin and attach 3 plies of film-type epoxy to 1 ply of carbon felt on each side.</li>
			<li>Place the epoxy-attached carbon felt on a hot plate that is pre-heated to 70 &#176;C for 10 s for pre-impregnation.</li>
			<li>Cool the prepared prepreg in the ambient condition for 10 min and peel off the other backup film.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparation of the soft layer 
	NOTE: For the soft layer, a fluoropolymer such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), a polyolefin such as polyethylene or polypropylene, or a synthetic rubber such as silicone rubber or a fluoroelastomer can be used. In this protocol, FEP film is adopted, and its yield strength drops drastically over 120 &#176;C. 25-&#181;m-thick FEP is suitable for unidirectional fiber and non-woven felt composites, whereas a thicker 100-&#181;m-thick FEP is appropriate for woven fabric type composites10.
	<ol>
		<li>Cleanse the soft layer with 99.5% acetone. Handle with care to avoid wrinkles and pinholes.</li>
		<li>Wipe off the acetone on the soft layer with lint-free wipes. Ensure that there is no contaminant on the soft layer because it will be transferred to the composite during the curing process. Always keep the soft layer away from dust and small particles because these may damage not only the composite but also the compression mold.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Composite Fabrication
<ol>
	<li>Installation of the compression mold
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a compression mold with a cavity of size 120 mm &#215; 120 mm.</li>
		<li>Apply the mold release to the compression mold. Simply paste or spray the mold release to the mold, and wipe with lint-free wipes until only a thin layer of mold release remains.</li>
		<li>Cut the prepared composite laminate to a size of 118 mm &#215; 118 mm.</li>
		<li>Place 1 ply of 25 &#181;m-thick FEP film on the lower mold.</li>
		<li>Place the composite laminate on the FEP film and place another FEP film on the laminate.</li>
		<li>Flatten the soft layer and remove the air bubbles that are entrapped between the soft layer and composite laminate.</li>
		<li>Close the mold for the compression molding.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Compression molding
	<ol>
		<li>Heat the hot press to 150 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: The temperature of the specimen inside the mold is 140 &#176;C in this condition. The use of a lower temperature is also possible if an elastomer or polyolefin is adopted for the soft layer. Consider both the curing temperature of the composite and the softening temperature of the soft layer to determine the curing temperature.</li>
		<li>Place the mold in the hot press.</li>
		<li>Apply pressure using the hot press; the curing schedule and pressure depend on the composite type.
		<ol>
			<li>For a unidirectional fiber composite, apply a constant pressure of 20 MPa for 30 min; no additional process is required.</li>
			<li>For a woven fabric type composite, apply 20 MPa. After 4 min and 8 min, release the applied pressure to zero and immediately apply 20 MPa again. 
			NOTE: This process is called purging, and its purpose is to remove excessive resin and entrapped air bubbles. The number of purging steps may be increased depending on the size of the composite; larger-size composites require more purging.
			<ol>
				<li>However, after the viscosity of the resin starts to increase, do not purge. Cure for 30 min in total.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>For a non-woven felt type composite, apply 3 MPa for 30 min. Beware of pressure overshoot, which will result in voids and defects in the final product. Increase the pressure slowly to avoid pressure overshoot.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Cool the compression mold in the hot press without releasing the pressure to below 120 &#176;C, which is the glass transition temperature of the fabricated composite.</li>
		<li>Release the pressure and remove the compression mold from the hot press.</li>
		<li>Demold the final product from the compression mold.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Hwang, I. U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bipolar+plate+made+of+carbon+fiber+epoxy+composite+for+polymer+electrolyte+membrane+fuel+cells.">Bipolar plate made of carbon fiber epoxy composite for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.</a> J Power Sources. 184 (1), 90-94 (2008).</li><li>Avasarala, B., Haldar, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+surface+roughness+of+composite+bipolar+plates+on+the+contact+resistance+of+a+proton+exchange+membrane+fuel+cell.">Effect of surface roughness of composite bipolar plates on the contact resistance of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell.</a> J Power Sources. 188 (1), 225-229 (2009).</li><li>Yu, H. N., Lim, J. W., Kim, M. K., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma+treatment+of+the+carbon+fiber+bipolar+plate+for+PEM+fuel+cell.">Plasma treatment of the carbon fiber bipolar plate for PEM fuel cell.</a> Compos Struct. 94 (5), 1911-1918 (2012).</li><li>Lim, J. W., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+composite-metal+hybrid+bipolar+plates+for+PEM+fuel+cells.">Development of composite-metal hybrid bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells.</a> Int J Hydrogen Energy. 37 (17), (2012).</li><li>Kim, B. G., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electromagnetic-carbon+surface+treatment+of+composite+bipolar+plate+for+high-efficiency+polymer+electrolyte+membrane+fuel+cells.">Electromagnetic-carbon surface treatment of composite bipolar plate for high-efficiency polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.</a> J Power Sources. 195 (6), 1577-1582 (2010).</li><li>Kim, B. G., Lim, J. W., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+single-type+aluminum/composite+hybrid+bipolar+plate+with+surface+modification+for+high+efficiency+PEMFC.">A single-type aluminum/composite hybrid bipolar plate with surface modification for high efficiency PEMFC.</a> Int J Hydrogen Energy. 36 (4), 3087-3095 (2011).</li><li>Yu, H. N., Lim, J. W., Suh, J. D., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+graphite-coated+carbon+fiber+epoxy+composite+bipolar+plate+for+polymer+electrolyte+membrane+fuel+cell.">A graphite-coated carbon fiber epoxy composite bipolar plate for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell.</a> J Power Sources. 196 (23), 9868-9875 (2011).</li><li>Kim, K. H., Kim, B. G., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+carbon+composite+bipolar+plate+(BP)+for+vanadium+redox+flow+battery+(VRFB).">Development of carbon composite bipolar plate (BP) for vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB).</a> Compos Struct. 109, 253-259 (2014).</li><li>Lee, D., Lim, J. W., Nam, S., Choi, I., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gasket-integrated+carbon/silicone+elastomer+composite+bipolar+plate+for+high-temperature+PEMFC.">Gasket-integrated carbon/silicone elastomer composite bipolar plate for high-temperature PEMFC.</a> Compos Struct. 128, 284-290 (2015).</li><li>Lee, D., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electro-mechanical+properties+of+the+carbon+fabric+composites+with+fibers+exposed+on+the+surface.">Electro-mechanical properties of the carbon fabric composites with fibers exposed on the surface.</a> Compos Struct. 140, 77-83 (2016).</li><li>Lee, D., Lim, J. W., Nam, S., Choi, I., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+for+exposing+carbon+fibers+on+composite+bipolar+plates.">Method for exposing carbon fibers on composite bipolar plates.</a> Compos Struct. 134, 1-9 (2015).</li><li>Lee, D., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carbon+composite+bipolar+plate+for+high-temperature+proton+exchange+membrane+fuel+cells+(HT-PEMFCs).">Carbon composite bipolar plate for high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells (HT-PEMFCs).</a> J Power Sources. 327, 119-126 (2016).</li><li>Lee, D., Choe, J., Nam, S., Lim, J. W., Choi, I., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+non-woven+carbon+felt+composite+bipolar+plates+using+the+soft+layer+method.">Development of non-woven carbon felt composite bipolar plates using the soft layer method.</a> Compos struct. 160, 976-982 (2016).</li><li>Lee, D., Lim, J. W., Lee, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cathode/anode+integrated+composite+bipolar+plate+for+high-temperature+PEMFC.">Cathode/anode integrated composite bipolar plate for high-temperature PEMFC.</a> Compos Struct. 167, 144-151 (2017).</li><li>Lee, D., Oh, Y., Nam, S., Choe, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adhesion+Characteristics+of+Fiber-exposed+Glass+Composites.">Adhesion Characteristics of Fiber-exposed Glass Composites.</a> Compos Struct. 165, 9-14 (2017).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The soft layer method provides significant advantages compared with the conventional methods, and with a lower manufacturing cost. All three types of composites manufactured by the soft layer method show unique characteristics in terms of the electrical properties, mechanical properties, gas permeability, and adhesion properties.
For the measurement of the electrical property, a four-point probe method was used. ASR was measured 5 times and the average value was taken as a representative value...

The bipolar plate is a multi-functional key component of energy conversion systems and energy storage systems such as fuel cells and batteries. The key functional requirements of the bipolar plate are as follows: high electrical conductivity in the through-thickness direction to reduce ohmic-loss, high mechanical properties to withstand high compaction pressure and external impacts, and high productivity for mass production.
Compared with the graphite and metals that were conventionally adopted as materials for the bipolar plate, carbon fiber/epoxy composites have a higher specific strength and stiffness, which indicates that the weight of the system can be greatly reduced by replacing the conventional bipolar plate materials with composites1. However, conventional carbon/epoxy composites have poor electrical conductivity in the through-thickness direction, which results in a large areal specific resistance (ASR), due to the resin-rich layer that is formed on the composite surface. The insulating resin-rich layer prevents direct contact between the conductive carbon fibers and adjacent components, such as another bipolar plate, gas diffusion layer (GDL), and carbon felt electrode (CFE). 
Many studies were conducted to resolve the high ASR due to the resin-rich layer. The first approach was surface treatment methods to selectively remove the resin-rich layer. For example, mechanical abrasion was attempted to remove the resin on the surface2. However, the carbon fibers were also damaged, which resulted in a poor ASR. Plasma treatment3,4 and microwave treatment methods5,6 were also developed to avoid fiber damage, but they resulted in low productivity and uniformity. The second approach, conductive layer coating methods, includes expanded graphite coating7,8. This method successfully reduced the ASR and has been regarded as a standard method to manufacture a composite bipolar plate. However, it is costly and has durability and delamination issues due to the low mechanical strength.
In this study, the "soft layer method", a novel manufacturing method that can expose carbon fibers on the composite bipolar plate surface, is demonstrated. The main purpose of this method is to obtain a low ASR with a low manufacturing cost. The soft layer method adopts a thin soft layer such as a polymer release film between the compression mold and bipolar plate. After curing in the compression mold and the detaching of the soft layer, the fabricated bipolar plate displays carbon fibers exposed on the surface without any post-surface treatment. This method not only decreased the ASR but also significantly increased the mechanical properties and solved the gas permeability issue. This method can be applied for many other purposes: the development of an electrically conductive plate, the manufacture of a thin composite, and the fabrication of an adhesive joint without surface treatment.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Unidirectional carbon/epoxy prepreg</td><td>SK Chemicals</td><td>USN020</td><td>Used to fabricate unidirectional carbon composite</td></tr><tr><td>Plain weave carbon fabric/epoxy prepreg</td><td>SK Chemicals</td><td>WSN 1k</td><td>Used to fabricate fabric carbon composite</td></tr><tr><td>Plain weave carbon fabric</td><td>SK Chemicals</td><td>C-112</td><td>Used to fabricate fabric carbon composite</td></tr><tr><td>Non-woven carbon felt</td><td>Newell</td><td>Graphite felt 3 mm</td><td>Used to fabricated felt carbon composite</td></tr><tr><td>Film type epoxy resin</td><td>SK Chemicals</td><td>K51</td><td>Used as a matrix of the composite</td></tr><tr><td>Acetone 99.5%</td><td>Samchun</td><td>67-64-1</td><td>Used to cleanse the carbon fiber and the soft layers</td></tr><tr><td>Mold release</td><td>ShinEtsu</td><td>KF-96</td><td>Used to coat the mold</td></tr><tr><td>Release film</td><td>Airtech</td><td>A4000V</td><td>Used as a soft layer</td></tr><tr><td>Compression mold</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Machined in lab. Material: NAK80</td></tr><tr><td>Hot press</td><td>Hydrotek 100</td><td>N/A</td><td>Used to apply pressure and heat</td></tr><tr><td>Scanning electron microscope</td><td>FEI Compnay</td><td>Magellan 400</td><td>Used to investigate the surface of the composite</td></tr></tbody></table>

experimental implementation of a new composite fabrication method: exposing bare fibers on the composite surface by the soft layer method

The bipolar plate is a key component in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). It is a multi-functional component that should have high electrical conductivity, high mechanical properties, and high productivity.
In this regard, a carbon fiber/epoxy resin composite can be an ideal material to replace the conventional graphite bipolar plate, which often leads to the catastrophic failure of the entire system because of its inherent brittleness. Though the carbon/epoxy composite has high mechanical properties and is easy to manufacture, the electrical conductivity in the through-thickness direction is poor because of the resin-rich layer that forms on its surface. Therefore, an expanded graphite coating was adopted to solve the electrical conductivity issue. However, the expanded graphite coating not only increases the manufacturing costs but also has poor mechanical properties.
In this study, a method to expose fibers on the composite surface is demonstrated. There are currently many methods that can expose fibers by surface treatment after the fabrication of the composite. This new method, however, does not require surface treatment because the fibers are exposed during the manufacture of the composite. By exposing bare carbon fibers on the surface, the electrical conductivity and mechanical strength of the composite are increased drastically.

The fabricated specimens are observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figure 1). Because the resin-rich layer that covers the top of the fibers is only a few micrometers thick, an optical microscopic image observed at the top of the specimen is not appropriate. A SEM image observed by tilting the specimen by 5&#176; provides a more representative image. Compared to the composites fabricated by conventional compression molding, which has its surface ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Experimental Implementation of a New Composite Fabrication Method: Exposing Bare Fibers on the Composite Surface by the Soft Layer Method at JoVE.com

Experimental Implementation of a New Composite Fabrication Method: Exposing Bare Fibers on the Composite Surface by the Soft Layer Method

A protocol to expose bare fibers on the composite surface by eliminating resin rich area is presented. The fibers are exposed during fabrication of the composites, not by the post surface treatment. The exposed carbon composites exhibit high electrical conductivity in the through-thickness direction and high mechanical property.

The bipolar plate is a key component in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). It is a multi-functional ...

experimental-implementation-new-composite-fabrication-method-exposing

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JoVE Journal

Engineering

8.3K Views.  Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology. Een protocol om bloot blote vezels op het samengestelde oppervlak door het elimineren van hars rijk gebied wordt gepresenteerd. De vezels worden tijdens de fabricage van de composieten, niet door de oppervlakte na de behandeling blootgesteld. De blootgestelde koolstof composieten vertonen hoge elektrische geleidbaarheid in de richting van de via-dikte en hoge mechanische eigenschap.

Video: Experimental Implementation of a New Composite Fabrication Method: Exposing Bare Fibers on the Composite Surface by the Soft Layer Method

Fabricating Metamaterials Using the Fiber Drawing Method

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe their electromagnetic properties to the structure of their constituents, instead of the atoms that compose them. For example, sub-wavelength metal wires can be arranged to possess an effective electric permittivity that is either positive or negative at a given frequency, in contrast to the metals themselves 2. This unprecedented control over the behaviour of light can potentially lead to a number of novel devices, such as invisibility cloaks 3, negative refractive index materials 4, and lenses that resolve objects below the diffraction limit 5. However, metamaterials operating at optical, mid-infrared and terahertz frequencies are conventionally made using nano- and micro-fabrication techniques that are expensive and produce samples that are at most a few centimetres in size 6-7. Here we present a fabrication method to produce hundreds of meters of metal wire metamaterials in fiber form, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response 8. We combine the stack-and-draw technique used to produce microstructured polymer optical fiber 9 with the Taylor-wire process 10, using indium wires inside polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) tubes. PMMA is chosen because it is an easy to handle, drawable dielectric with suitable optical properties in the terahertz region; indium because it has a melting temperature of 156.6 &deg;C which is appropriate for codrawing with PMMA. We include an indium wire of 1 mm diameter and 99.99% purity in a PMMA tube with 1 mm inner diameter (ID) and 12 mm outside diameter (OD) which is sealed at one end. The tube is evacuated and drawn down to an outer diameter of 1.2 mm. The resulting fiber is then cut into smaller pieces, and stacked into a larger PMMA tube. This stack is sealed at one end and fed into a furnace while being rapidly drawn, reducing the diameter of the structure by a factor of 10, and increasing the length by a factor of 100. Such fibers possess features on the micro- and nano- scale, are inherently flexible, mass-producible, and can be woven to exhibit electromagnetic properties that are not found in nature. They represent a promising platform for a number of novel devices from terahertz to optical frequencies, such as invisible fibers, woven negative refractive index cloths, and super-resolving lenses.

Metamaterials at terahertz frequencies offer unique opportunities, but are challenging to fabricate in bulk. We adapt the fabrication procedure for microstructured polymer optical fibers to inexpensively fabricate metamaterials potentially on an industrial scale. We produce polymethylmethacrylate fibers containing ~10 &mu;m diameter indium wires separated by ~100 &mu;m, which exhibit a terahertz plasmonic response.

Metamaterials are man-made composite materials, fabricated by assembling components much smaller than the wavelength at which they operate 1. They owe ...

Process of Making Three-dimensional Microstructures using Vaporization of a Sacrificial Component

Vascular structures in natural systems are able to provide high mass transport through high surface areas and optimized structure. Few synthetic material fabrication techniques are able to mimic the complexity of these structures while maintaining scalability. The Vaporization of a Sacrificial Component (VaSC) process is able to do so. This process uses sacrificial fibers as a template to form hollow, cylindrical microchannels embedded within a matrix. Tin (II) oxalate (SnOx) is embedded within poly(lactic) acid (PLA) fibers which facilitates the use of this process. The SnOx catalyzes the depolymerization of the PLA fibers at lower temperatures. The lactic acid monomers are gaseous at these temperatures and can be removed from the embedded matrix at temperatures that do not damage the matrix. Here we show a method for aligning these fibers using micromachined plates and a tensioning device to create complex patterns of three-dimensionally arrayed microchannels. The process allows the exploration of virtually any arrangement of fiber topologies and structures.

The Vaporization of a Sacrificial Component (VaSC) process is used to fabricate microvascular structures. This procedure uses sacrificial poly(lactic) acid fibers to form hollow microchannels with precise 3D geometric positioning provided by laser micromachined guide plates.

Vascular structures in natural systems are able to provide high mass transport through high surface areas and optimized structure. Few synthetic material ...

Manufacturing of Three-dimensionally Microstructured Nanocomposites through Microfluidic Infiltration

Microstructured composite beams reinforced with complex three-dimensionally (3D) patterned nanocomposite microfilaments are fabricated via nanocomposite in&#64257;ltration of 3D interconnected microfluidic networks. The manufacturing of the reinforced beams begins with the fabrication of microfluidic networks, which involves layer-by-layer deposition of fugitive ink filaments using a dispensing robot, filling the empty space between filaments using a low viscosity resin, curing the resin and finally removing the ink.&#160;Self-supported 3D structures with other geometries and many layers (e.g.&#160;a few hundreds layers) could be built using this method. The resulting tubular micro&#64258;uidic networks are then infiltrated with thermosetting nanocomposite suspensions containing nanofillers (e.g.&#160;single-walled carbon nanotubes), and subsequently cured. The infiltration is done by applying a pressure gradient between two ends of the empty network (either by applying a vacuum or vacuum-assisted microinjection). Prior to the infiltration, the nanocomposite suspensions are prepared by dispersing nanofillers into polymer matrices using ultrasonication and three-roll mixing methods. The nanocomposites (i.e.&#160;materials infiltrated) are then solidified under UV exposure/heat cure, resulting in a 3D-reinforced composite structure. The technique presented here enables the design of functional nanocomposite macroscopic products for microengineering applications such as actuators and sensors.

Three-dimensional (3D) microstructured composite beams are fabricated through the directed and localized infiltration of nanocomposites into 3D porous microfluidic networks. The flexibility of this manufacturing method enables the utilization of different thermosetting materials and nanofillers in order to achieve a variety of functional 3D reinforced nanocomposite macroscopic products.

Microstructured composite beams reinforced with complex three-dimensionally (3D) patterned nanocomposite microfilaments are fabricated via nanocomposite ...

Chemistry

Strain Sensing Based on Multiscale Composite Materials Reinforced with Graphene Nanoplatelets

The electrical response of NH2-functionalized graphene nanoplatelets composite materials under strain was studied. Two different manufacturing methods are proposed to create the electrical network in this work: (a) the incorporation of the nanoplatelets into the epoxy matrix and (b) the coating of the glass fabric with a sizing filled with the same nanoplatelets. Both types of multiscale composite materials, with an in-plane electrical conductivity of ~10-3 S/m, showed an exponential growth of the electrical resistance as the strain increases due to distancing between adjacent functionalized graphene nanoplatelets and contact loss between overlying ones. The sensitivity of the materials analyzed during this research, using the described procedures, has been shown to be higher than commercially available strain gauges. The proposed procedures for self-sensing of the structural composite material would facilitate the structural health monitoring of components in difficult to access emplacements such as offshore wind power farms. Although the sensitivity of the multiscale composite materials was considerably higher than the sensitivity of metallic foils used as strain gauges, the value reached with NH2 functionalized graphene nanoplatelets coated fabrics was nearly an order of magnitude superior. This result elucidated their potential to be used as smart fabrics to monitor human movements such as bending of fingers or knees. By using the proposed method, the smart fabric could immediately detect the bending and recover instantly. This fact permits precise monitoring of the time of bending as well as the degree of bending.

The integration of conductive nanoparticles, such as graphene nanoplatelets, into glass fiber composite materials creates an intrinsic electrical network susceptible to strain. Here, different methods to obtain strain sensors based on the addition of graphene nanoplatelets into the epoxy matrix or as a coating on glass fabrics are proposed.

The electrical response of NH2-functionalized graphene nanoplatelets composite materials under strain was studied. Two different manufacturing methods are ...

Microfluidic Fabrication of Polymeric and Biohybrid Fibers with Predesigned Size and Shape

A &#8220;sheath&#8221; fluid passing through a microfluidic channel at low Reynolds number can be directed around another &#8220;core&#8221; stream and used to dictate the shape as well as the diameter of a core stream.&#160;Grooves in the top and bottom of a microfluidic channel were designed to direct the sheath fluid and shape the core fluid.&#160;By matching the viscosity and hydrophilicity of the sheath and core fluids, the interfacial effects are minimized and complex fluid shapes can be formed.&#160;Controlling the relative flow rates of the sheath and core fluids determines the cross-sectional area of the core fluid.&#160;Fibers have been produced with sizes ranging from 300 nm to ~1 mm, and fiber cross-sections can be round, flat, square, or complex as in the case with double anchor fibers. Polymerization of the core fluid downstream from the shaping region solidifies the fibers.&#160;Photoinitiated click chemistries are well suited for rapid polymerization of the core fluid by irradiation with ultraviolet light.&#160;Fibers with a wide variety of shapes have been produced from a list of polymers including liquid crystals, poly(methylmethacrylate), thiol-ene and thiol-yne resins, polyethylene glycol, and hydrogel derivatives. Minimal shear during the shaping process and mild polymerization conditions also makes the fabrication process well suited for encapsulation of cells and other biological components.

Two adjacent fluids passing through a grooved microfluidic channel can be directed to form a sheath around a prepolymer core; thereby&#160;determining both shape and cross-section. Photoinitiated polymerization, such as thiol click chemistry, is well suited for rapidly solidifying the core fluid into a microfiber with predetermined size and shape.

A &#8220;sheath&#8221; fluid passing through a microfluidic channel at low Reynolds number can be directed around another &#8220;core&#8221; stream and ...

Bioengineering

Magnet Assisted Composite Manufacturing: A Flexible New Technique for Achieving High Consolidation Pressure in Vacuum Bag/Lay-Up Processes

This work demonstrates a protocol to improve the quality of composite laminates fabricated by wet lay-up vacuum bag processes using the recently developed magnet assisted composite manufacturing (MACM) technique. In this technique, permanent magnets are utilized to apply a sufficiently high consolidation pressure during the curing stage. To enhance the intensity of the magnetic field, and thus, to increase the magnetic compaction pressure, the magnets are placed on a magnetic top plate. First, the entire procedure of preparing the composite lay-up on a magnetic bottom steel plate using the conventional wet lay-up vacuum bag process is described. Second, placement of a set of Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets, arranged in alternating polarity, on the vacuum bag is illustrated. Next, the experimental procedures to measure the magnetic compaction pressure and volume fractions of the composite constituents are presented. Finally, methods used to characterize microstructure and mechanical properties of composite laminates are discussed in detail. The results prove the effectiveness of the MACM method in improving the quality of wet lay-up vacuum bag laminates. This method does not require large capital investment for tooling or equipment and can also be used to consolidate geometrically complex composite parts by placing the magnets on a matching top mold positioned on the vacuum bag.

A new technique for applying consolidation pressure on the vacuum bag lay-up to fabricate composite laminates is described. The goal of this protocol is to develop a simple, cost-effective technique to improve the quality of laminates fabricated by the wet lay-up vacuum bag method.

This work demonstrates a protocol to improve the quality of composite laminates fabricated by wet lay-up vacuum bag processes using the recently developed ...

Multiscale Structures Aggregated by Imprinted Nanofibers for Functional Surfaces

Multiscale surface structures have attracted increasing interest owing to several potential applications in surface devices. However, an existing challenge in the field is the fabrication of hybrid micro-nano structures using a facile, cost-effective, and high-throughput method. To overcome these challenges, this paper proposes a protocol to fabricate multiscale structures using only an imprint process with an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) filter and an evaporative self-aggregation process of nanofibers. Unlike previous attempts that have aimed to straighten nanofibers, we demonstrate a unique fabrication method for multiscale aggregated nanofibers with high aspect ratios. Furthermore, the surface morphology and wettability of these structures on various liquids were investigated to facilitate their use in multifunctional surfaces.

Presented is an easy method to fabricate nano-micro multiscale structures, for functional surfaces, by aggregating nanofibers fabricated using an anodic aluminum oxide filter.

Multiscale surface structures have attracted increasing interest owing to several potential applications in surface devices. However, an existing ...

Fabrication and Design of Wood-Based High-Performance Composites

Delignified densified wood is a new promising and sustainable material that possesses the potential to replace synthetic materials, such as glass fiber reinforced composites, due to its excellent mechanical properties. Delignified wood, however, is rather fragile in a wet state, which makes handling and shaping challenging. Here we present two fabrication processes, closed-mold densification and vacuum densification, to produce high-performance cellulose composites based on delignified wood, including an assessment of their advantages and limitations. Further, we suggest strategies for how the composites can be re-used or decomposed at the end-of-life cycle. Closed-mold densification has the advantage that no elaborate lab equipment is needed. Simple screw clamps or a press can be used for densification. We recommend this method for small parts with simple geometries and large radii of curvature. Vacuum densification in an open-mold process is suitable for larger objects and complex geometries, including small radii of curvature. Compared to the closed-mold process, the open-mold vacuum approach only needs the manufacture of a single mold cavity.

Delignified densified wood represents a new promising lightweight, high-performance and bio-based material with great potential to partially substitute natural fiber reinforced- or glass fiber reinforced composites in the future. We here present two versatile fabrication routes and demonstrate the possibility to create complex composite parts.

Delignified densified wood is a new promising and sustainable material that possesses the potential to replace synthetic materials, such as glass fiber ...

Fabrication and Mechanical Property Assessment of Fiber Composite Laminates

Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Glass Fiber Reinforcement Polymer Composite Laminates Obtained by Different Fabrication Processes

The traditional wet hand lay-up process (WL) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of fiber composite laminates. However, due insufficiency in the forming pressure, the mass fraction of fiber is reduced and lots of air bubbles are trapped inside, resulting in low-quality laminates (low stiffness and strength). The wet hand lay-up/vacuum bag (WLVB) process for the fabrication of composite laminates is based on the traditional wet hand lay-up process, using a vacuum bag to remove air bubbles and provide pressure, and then carrying out the heating and curing process. 
Compared with the traditional hand lay-up process, laminates manufactured by the WLVB process show superior mechanical properties, including better strength and stiffness, higher fiber volume fraction, and lower void volume fraction, which are all benefits for composite laminates. This process is completely manual, and it is greatly influenced by the skills of the preparation personnel. Therefore, the products are prone to defects such as voids and uneven thickness, leading to unstable qualities and mechanical properties of the laminate. Hence, it is necessary to finely describe the WLVB process, finely control steps, and quantify material ratios, in order to ensure the mechanical properties of laminates. 
This paper describes the meticulous process of the WLVB process for preparing woven plain patterned glass fiber reinforcement composite laminates (GFRPs). The fiber volume content of laminates was calculated using the formula method, and the calculated results showed that the fiber volume content of WL laminates was 42.04%, while that of WLVB laminates was 57.82%, increasing by 15.78%. The mechanical properties of the laminates were characterized using tensile and impact tests. The experimental results revealed that with the WLVB process, the strength and modulus of the laminates were enhanced by 17.4% and 16.35%, respectively, and the specific absorbed energy was increased by 19.48%.

Author Spotlight: Enhancing Fiber Composite Laminate Quality with the Wet Hand Lay-Up/Vacuum Bag Process 

This paper describes a fabrication process for fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite laminates obtained using the wet hand lay-up/vacuum bag method.

The traditional wet hand lay-up process (WL) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of fiber composite laminates. However, due insufficiency in the ...

Using Carbon Nanofiber Arrays for Efficient Biomolecule and Dye Delivery to Plants

Using Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanofiber Arrays on Rigid or Flexible Substrates for Delivery of Biomolecules and Dyes to Plants

The delivery of biomolecules and impermeable dyes to intact plants is a major challenge. Nanomaterials are up-and-coming tools for the delivery of DNA to plants. As exciting as these new tools are, they have yet to be widely applied. Nanomaterials fabricated on rigid substrate (backing) are particularly difficult to successfully apply to curved plant structures. This study describes the process for microfabricating vertically aligned carbon nanofiber arrays and transferring them from a rigid to a flexible substrate. We detail and demonstrate how these fibers (on either rigid or flexible substrates) can be used for transient transformation or dye (e.g., fluorescein) delivery to plants. We show how VACNFs can be transferred from rigid silicon substrate to a flexible SU-8 epoxy substrate to form flexible VACNF arrays. To overcome the hydrophobic nature of SU-8, fibers in the flexible film were coated with a thin silicon oxide layer (2-3 nm). To use these fibers for delivery to curved plant organs, we deposit a 1 &#181;L droplet of dye or DNA solution on the fiber side of VACNF films, wait 10 min, place the films on the plant organ and employ a swab with a rolling motion to drive fibers into plant cells. With this method, we have achieved dye and DNA delivery in plant organs with curved surfaces.

Author Spotlight: Unlocking Plant Transformation by Innovating with Carbon Nanofiber Arrays 

Here we describe methods for microfabricating vertically aligned carbon nanofibers (VACNFs), transferring VACNFs to flexible substrates, and applying VACNFs on both rigid and flexible substrates to plants for biomolecule and dye delivery.

The delivery of biomolecules and impermeable dyes to intact plants is a major challenge. Nanomaterials are up-and-coming tools for the delivery of DNA to ...

Experimental Implementation of a New Composite Fabrication Method: Exposing Bare Fibers on the Composite Surface by the Soft Layer Method

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