This work was supported by a grant of the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF; #320030_156019). The authors received nonfinancial support from Heidelberg Engineering GmBH, Germany.

In all procedures, BALB/c adult male and female mice who express gfp under the promoter of Cx3cr1 were used24. Mice were treated according to the ARVO Statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research and all procedures were approved from the Swiss government according to the Federal Swiss Regulations on Animal Welfare. Mice were anesthetized by a subcutaneous injection of medetomidine hydrochloride (0.75 mg/kg) and ketamine (45 mg/kg). Proper anesthesia was confirmed by monitoring the respiratory rate and the animal&#39;s reflex against a tail pinch. At the end of the experiments, mice were euthanized with CO2 inhalation.
NOTE: Perform each imaging session as quickly as possible (maximum 20 min), since cataract formation following anesthesia may hamper retinal visualization30.
1. System Configuration
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the computer.</li>
	<li>Turn on the power supply. The message &#34;Start acquisition module&#34; will appear on the device`s control panel screen.</li>
	<li>Double click on the software`s desktop shortcut to operate the software.</li>
	<li>On the database view, click the &#34;add patient&#34; icon.</li>
	<li>In the pop-up window, insert all necessary information (last name, first name, title, date of birth, sex, and patient-ID) and click &#34;ok&#34;. On the pop window set the corneal curvature to 2 mm and click &#34;ok&#34;.</li>
	<li>Position a 78D standard ophthalmic non-contact slit lamp lens in front of the standard 30 &#176; optic and fasten it safely with tape.</li>
	<li>Make sure that the filter lever on the left of the device is positioned on the indication &#34;A&#34; to allow both IR+OCT and AF imaging (Figure 1).</li>
</ol>
2. Mouse Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Use a medetomidine hydrochloride dose of 0.75 mg/kg and a ketamine dose of 45 mg/kg in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) to prepare anesthesia solution. Thus, for a 20 g mouse, mix 15 &#181;L of medetomidine hydrochloride with 18 &#181;L of ketamine to a final volume of 50 &#181;L in PBS. Store the solution at 4 &#176;C for up to one week.</li>
	<li>Grasp the mouse by the scruff and apply one drop of tropicamide 0.5% + phenylephrine hydrochloride 2.5% on each eye to achieve pupil dilation.</li>
	<li>Keep the mouse restrained, and with an insulin syringe attached to a 30G needle, inject 50 &#181;L of the anesthesia solution subcutaneously. Put the mouse back in its cage that is placed above a heating pad. Wait 3-5 min until the mouse is fully sedated. To assess anesthetic depth, pinch the tail of the mouse. Check the corneal reflex by gently touching the mouse cornea with a cotton swab. If no positive reflex is observed, continue with the imaging. 
	NOTE: It is important to monitor respiratory rate during anesthesia. If the mouse is not fully sedated, the respiratory rate will increase upon a painful stimulus.</li>
	<li>Hydrate the mouse cornea with an application of 2% hydroxypropylmethylcellulose drops on each eye.</li>
</ol>
3. SD-OCT
<ol>
	<li>Place a warming patch of approximately 32 &#176;C on the custom-made platform attached on the device`s chin rest (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>To image the right eye, place the mouse on the left part of the platform (Figure 1). Ensure that the right orbit of the mouse faces the lens and its body lies prone on the left part of the platform.</li>
	<li>Apply a drop of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose on the right eye and carefully position a +4 diopter rigid gas permeable contact lens on it (spherical power: -25.00 to +25.00 diopters). Store the contact lens in balanced salt solution (BSS). To grab the lens, use plastic or silicon forceps to avoid damage.</li>
	<li>Press the yellow box on the right corner of the control panel display to start the acquisition module (green box on Figure 2A). The yellow box will turn green and the control panel menu will appear on the screen (Figure 2A).</li>
	<li>For acquisition of B-scans, select the option IR+OCT on the control panel (Figure 2A). Selected settings are highlighted in blue on the control panel.</li>
	<li>Select &#34;Retina&#34; under &#34;Application and Structure&#34; in the software and move the lens towards the mouse eye using the micromanipulator on the device (Figure 1). Before focusing onto the retina, check that the indication &#34;OD&#34; is selected on the left bottom part of the screen. The software automatically identifies the left (OS) and the right (OD) eye based on the position of the objective. 
	NOTE: If the objective is positioned on the middle of the platform, an error message will appear on the bottom of the screen. In that case, re-position the mouse slightly until the software recognizes the correct eye.</li>
	<li>With the focus knob, focus on the retina until the big vessels are clearly seen in the fundus image on the left of the computer screen. Move the camera by turning the micromanipulator left or right, to move the camera in that direction, or clockwise or counterclockwise, to move the camera up or down, respectively. 
	NOTE: Reposition the mouse on the platform or move the lens upwards or downwards to achieve the preferred localization of the optic nerve head in the infrared image.</li>
	<li>Turn the sensitivity knob counterclockwise to reduce or clockwise to increase the brightness of the fundus image. When optimal focus is achieved, an SD-OCT B-scan will appear on the right of the screen. 
	NOTE: If the B-scan cannot be visualized by adjusting the focus, press the combination Ctrl+Alt+Shift+O on the keyboard. In the pop-up window, adjust the value of the reference arm until the B-scan appears on the screen.</li>
	<li>On the bottom right of the screen, choose the single scan from the pattern menu (single line in Figure 2B).</li>
	<li>Turn the micromanipulator of the device (Figure 1) left, right, forward, or backward (to turn the camera in that direction) to ensure that the B-scan is located between the top and bottom corners of the SD-OCT scan window.</li>
	<li>Set the Automatic Real-Time (ART) value to at least 9 to obtain high quality images. 
	NOTE: ART improves image quality by averaging several consecutive scans. The higher the &#34;ART&#34; value, the higher the signal-to-noise ratio and thus the image quality. However, by increasing the &#34;ART&#34; value, the acquiring time is also increased.</li>
	<li>Press the &#34;acquire&#34; button (Figure 2) on the control panel screen and acquire the images.</li>
	<li>Re-position the mouse to image the left eye and repeat steps 3.2-3.12.</li>
	<li>Remove the contact lens with plastic/silicon forceps and place it into BSS.</li>
	<li>Hydrate the mouse cornea with a fresh drop of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and remove the excess with a tissue paper.</li>
	<li>Remove the standard 30 &#176; optic by rotating it counterclockwise.</li>
	<li>Mount the 55 &#176; lens and repeat steps 3.4-3.12 for each eye.</li>
</ol>
4. Auto Fluorescence Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Without moving the mouse on the platform, select IR on the control panel.</li>
	<li>With the focus knob, focus on the big retinal vessels.</li>
	<li>On the control panel select AF.</li>
	<li>Turn the sensitivity knob counterclockwise to reduce or clockwise to increase the brightness of the image.</li>
	<li>Press the sensitivity knob and set the &#34;ART&#34; value to 67 or more to obtain high quality images.</li>
	<li>When the set &#34;ART&#34; value has been reached, press &#34;acquire&#34; on the control panel to acquire the image. Press the sensitivity knob again to stop averaging. Adjust the focus, to visualize different retinal layers.</li>
	<li>Remove the 55&#176;&#160; lens and mount the wide field 102&#176;&#160; lens. Follow steps 4.1&#8211;4.6 for both eyes of each mouse and for every mouse.</li>
	<li>Click &#8220;Save images&#8221; on the left upper border of the window and then click &#8220;exit&#8221;. To save the images in the computer, select the mouse from the list on the right part of the screen by double clicking on the mouse name. Double click on each image separately and then click on the floppy disc icon. Save the image as .tif, .bmp, .jpg, or .png at the desired folder. To exit the software press &#8220;File&#8221; and &#8220;Exit&#8221;.</li>
</ol>
5. Anesthesia Reversal
<ol>
	<li>Hydrate the mouse eyes with one drop of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and return the mouse on a heating pad.</li>
	<li>Prepare atipamezole solution in a dose of 2.25 mg/kg to reverse the sedative effects of medetomidine hydrochloride. For a 20 g mouse, add 9 &#181;L of atipamezol in a final volume of 150 &#181;L PBS. Store the solution at 4 &#176;C for up to one week.</li>
	<li>min after anesthesia injection (step 2.2), inject 150 &#181;L of atipamezole solution subcutaneously.</li>
	<li>Monitor the mouse until recovery from anesthesia. When the mouse is fully recovered (5-10 min after atipamezole injection) put it back in its cage. Recovery is indicated by the ability of the animal to turn its body when laid on one side, regaining of walking activity, and reacting in response to environmental stimulation.</li>
</ol>
6. Manual Retinal Thickness Measurement from SD-OCT Images
<ol>
	<li>Open the OCT scan by double clicking on the name of the animal.</li>
	<li>Open the B-scan obtained with the 30 &#176; or 55 &#176; lens.</li>
	<li>Choose &#34;thickness profile&#34;.</li>
	<li>Press the &#34;Edit Layer Segmentations&#34; icon (Figure 2B). The software automatically identifies the inner limiting and base membrane.</li>
	<li>If necessary, manually correct the position of the inner limiting and base membrane. To do so, choose the layer to be modified from the left side of the screen and then the red circle option (Figure 2B). Move the circle with the mouse button pressed to modify the line.</li>
	<li>Modify the line to position the corresponding layer correctly. Click &#34;Save and close&#34; to exit the window. 
	NOTE: Due to reflectivity of the choroid, the software may identify the base membrane incorrectly. Thus, it is preferable to define it manually before proceeding to retinal thickness measurements.</li>
	<li>Choose &#34;Retina&#34; under the &#34;Layer&#34; option. A diagram of retinal thickness will appear on the bottom of the screen.</li>
	<li>Click on a different position either on the diagram or on the B-scan to view the retinal thickness (indicated in &#181;m) for the selected position.</li>
	<li>Measure the retinal thickness in the desired distance from the optic nerve head and copy the values in a spreadsheet.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 5.1-5.9 for each mouse for both the 30 &#176; and the 55 &#176; lens.</li>
	<li>Perform statistical analysis with desired software.</li>
</ol>

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<li>Wang, N. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Origin+of+fundus+hyperautofluorescent+spots+and+their+role+in+retinal+degeneration+in+a+mouse+model+of+Goldmann-Favre+syndrome%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Dis+Model+Mech%22%5BJournal%5D)">Origin of fundus hyperautofluorescent spots and their role in retinal degeneration in a mouse model of Goldmann-Favre syndrome.</a> Dis Model Mech. 6 (5), 1113-1122 (2013).</li>
<li>Wang, N. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Cellular+origin+of+fundus+autofluorescence+in+patients+and+mice+with+a+defective+NR2E3+gene%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Br+J+Ophthalmol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Cellular origin of fundus autofluorescence in patients and mice with a defective NR2E3 gene.</a> Br J Ophthalmol. 93 (9), 1234-1240 (2009).</li>
<li>Thanos, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Sick+photoreceptors+attract+activated+microglia+from+the+ganglion+cell+layer%3A+a+model+to+study+the+inflammatory+cascades+in+rats+with+inherited+retinal+dystrophy%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Brain+Res%22%5BJournal%5D)">Sick photoreceptors attract activated microglia from the ganglion cell layer: a model to study the inflammatory cascades in rats with inherited retinal dystrophy.</a> Brain Res. 588 (1), 21-28 (1992).</li>
<li>Hughes, E. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Generation+of+activated+sialoadhesin-positive+microglia+during+retinal+degeneration%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Invest+Ophthalmol+Vis+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Generation of activated sialoadhesin-positive microglia during retinal degeneration.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 44 (5), 2229-2234 (2003).</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The present article demonstrates a protocol for the acquisition of retinal B-scans and imaging of gfp positive microglia distribution in the mouse retina in the same imaging session. SD-OCT and SLO are increasingly used in animal models of retinal disease to provide information of retinal alterations over time10,14,17,18,21. With this protocol, Cx3cr1...

In experimental ophthalmology, examination of retinal pathology is usually evaluated using histological techniques. However, histology requires animal euthanization and may cause alteration to the actual properties of the tissue. SD-OCT and SLO are routinely used in clinical ophthalmology for diagnostic purposes and for the monitoring of several retinal diseases such as diabetic macular edema9, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy10, or retinitis pigmentosa11. SD-OCT and SLO are non-invasive techniques that generate high-resolution images of the retina, which are visualized through the dilated pupil without further intervention. SD-OCT provides information of retinal structure and retinal thickness by collecting backscattering data to create cross-sectional images of the retina, while SLO collects fluorescence data to produce stereoscopic high-contrast images of the retina. Nowadays, both techniques are increasingly used in experimental ophthalmology using small rodents12,13,14,15 (or even zebrafish16,17) and can provide both qualitative and quantitative information12,17,18,19,20,21.
Accumulation of endogenous fluorophores like lipofuscins or the formation of drusen in the retina can be visualized by SLO as auto fluorescent signal. This feature makes SLO a valuable technique for diagnosis and monitoring of retinal diseases such as age-related macular degeneration or retinitis pigmentosa22,23. In experimental ophthalmology, auto fluorescence imaging (AF) can be used for the detection of specific cell types in reporter mouse lines. For example, mice heterozygous for the expression of gfp under the promoter of Cx3cr124 are advantageous for in vivo visualization of microglial cells in the normal retina and for the investigation of microglia/macrophage dynamics in retinal disease21. Microglia are the resident macrophages of the retina, which play a crucial role on tissue homeostasis and tissue repair upon injury1,25,26. Microglia activation in the retina has been reported in retinal injury, ischemia, and degeneration, suggesting a role of these cells in retinal disease2,3,4,5,6.
The aim of the present protocol is to describe a relatively simple method for retinal imaging and measurement of retinal thickness using SD-OCT, and for visualization of gfp positive microglia cells in the Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mouse retina using SLO (Heidelberg Spectralis HRA+OCT system). This protocol can be utilized for imaging and thickness measurements of healthy or diseased retinas in various mouse lines. Additionally, morphometric analyses can be performed for the identification and quantification of microglia numbers and microglia activation in the retina using SLO21. Microglia cells are associated with degenerative diseases in the central nervous system (CNS), including the retina27,28,29. Thus, by combining the two methods used in the present protocol, correlation of microglia distribution and retinal degeneration can be made, which can facilitate monitoring disease severity or the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches in vivo.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Spectralis Imaging system (HRA+OCT)</td><td>Heidelberg Engineering, Germany</td><td>N/A</td><td>ophthalmic imaging platform system</td></tr><tr><td>Heidelberg Eye Explorer</td><td>Heidelberg Engineering, Germany</td><td>N/A</td><td>Version 1.9.13.0</td></tr><tr><td>78D standard ophthalmic non-contact slit lamp lens</td><td>Volk Optical Inc., Ohio, USA</td><td>V78C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Spectralis wide angle 55&amp;deg; lens</td><td>Heidelberg Engineering, Germany</td><td>50897-002</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ultra widefield 102&amp;deg; lens</td><td>Heidelberg Engineering, Germany</td><td>50117-001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>medetomidine hydrochloride 1 mg/mL (Domitor)</td><td>Provet AG, Lyssach, Switzerland</td><td>Swissmedic Nr. 50&#039;590 - ATCvet: QN05CM91</td><td>anesthetic/analgesic</td></tr><tr><td>ketamine 50mg/ml (Ketalar)</td><td>Parke-Davis, Zurich, Switzerland</td><td>72276388</td><td>anesthetic</td></tr><tr><td>tropicamide 0.5% + phenylephrine HCl 2.5% (Augentropfen mix)</td><td>ISPI, Bern, Switzerland</td><td>N/A</td><td>pupil dilation</td></tr><tr><td>Omnican Insulin-50 0.5 ml G30 0.3 x 12mm</td><td>B. Braun Mesungen AG, Carl-Braun-Stra&amp;szlig;e, Germany</td><td>9151125</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (Methocel 2%)</td><td>OmniVision, Neuhausen, Switzerland</td><td>N/A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>+4 dpt rigid gas permeable contact lens</td><td>Quantum I, Bausch + Lomb Inc., Rochester, NY</td><td>N/A</td><td>Base Curve: 7.20 to 8.40 mm&lt;br/&gt; Diameter: 9.00 / 9.60 / 10.20 mm&lt;br/&gt; Power: -25.00 to +25.00 Diopters</td></tr><tr><td>balanced salt solution (BSS)</td><td>Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland</td><td>N/A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>silicon forceps</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>atipamezole 5 mg/mL (Antisedan)</td><td>Provet AG, Lyssach, Switzerland</td><td>N/A</td><td>&amp;alpha;2 adrenergic receptor antagonist</td></tr><tr><td>GraphPad Prism 7</td><td>GraphPad Software, Inc, San Diego, CA, USA</td><td>N/A</td><td>statistical analysis software</td></tr></tbody></table>

in vivo imaging of cx3cr1gfp/gfp reporter mice with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) are extensively used in experimental ophthalmology. In the present protocol, mice expressing green fluorescent protein (gfp) under the promoter of Cx3cr1 (BALB/c-Cx3cr1gfp/gfp) were used to image microglia cells in vivo in the retina. Microglia are resident macrophages of the retina and have been implicated in several retinal diseases1,2,3,4,5,6. This protocol provides a detailed approach for generation of retinal B-scans, with SD-OCT, and imaging of microglia cell distribution in Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mice with SLO in vivo, using an ophthalmic imaging platform system. The protocol can be used in several reporter mouse lines. However, there are some limitations to the protocol presented here. First, both SLO and SD-OCT, when used in the high-resolution mode, collect data with high axial resolution but the lateral resolution is lower (3.5 &#181;m and 6 &#181;m, respectively). Moreover, the focus and saturation level in SLO is highly dependent on parameter selection and correct alignment of the eye. Additionally, using devices designed for human patients in mice is challenging due to the higher total optical power of the mouse eye compared to the human eye; this can lead to lateral magnification inaccuracies7, which are also dependent on the magnification by the mouse lens among others. However, despite that the axial scan position is dependent upon lateral magnification, the axial SD-OCT measurements are accurate8.

Using the protocol presented here, SD-OCT scans and SLO images were obtained from Cx3cr1gfp/gfp mice in the same imaging session. Figure 3 includes representative SD-OCT single scans obtained with a 30 &#176; or a 55 &#176; lens (Figure 3A) and representative SLO images obtained with a 55 &#176; or a 102 &#176; lens, where gfp positive microglia cells are visualized. Higher reflectivity of the choroid is obser...

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In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

This protocol describes how high-resolution imaging techniques such as spectral domain optical coherence tomography and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy can be utilized in small rodents, using an ophthalmic imaging platform system, to obtain information on retinal thickness and microglial cell distribution, respectively.

In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) are extensively used in experimental ophthalmology. In the ...

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10.6K Views.  Bern University Hospital and University of Bern. Dit protocol beschrijft hoe hoge resolutie beeldvormende technieken zoals spectrale domein optische coherentie tomografie en scannen van laser ophthalmoscopy kan worden gebruikt in kleine knaagdieren, met behulp van een oogheelkundige imaging platform systeem, om informatie te verkrijgen over netvlies dikte en microglial cel distributie, respectievelijk.

Video: In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma

Microglia, which are CNS-resident neuroimmune cells, transform their morphology and size in response to CNS damage, switching to an activated state with distinct functions and gene expression profiles. The roles of microglial activation in health, injury and disease remain incompletely understood due to their dynamic and complex regulation in response to changes in their microenvironment. Thus, it is critical to non-invasively monitor and analyze changes in microglial activation over time in the intact organism. In vivo studies of microglial activation have been delayed by technical limitations to tracking microglial behavior without altering the CNS environment. This has been particularly challenging during chronic neurodegeneration, where long-term changes must be tracked. The retina, a CNS organ amenable to non-invasive live imaging, offers a powerful system to visualize and characterize the dynamics of microglia activation during chronic disorders.
This protocol outlines methods for long-term, in vivo imaging of retinal microglia, using confocal ophthalmoscopy (cSLO) and CX3CR1GFP/+ reporter mice, to visualize microglia with cellular resolution. Also, we describe methods to quantify monthly changes in cell activation and density in large cell subsets (200-300 cells per retina). We confirm the use of somal area as a useful metric for live tracking of microglial activation in the retina by applying automated threshold-based morphometric analysis of in vivo images. We use these live image acquisition and analyses strategies to monitor the dynamic changes in microglial activation and microgliosis during early stages of retinal neurodegeneration in a mouse model of chronic glaucoma. This approach should be useful to investigate the contributions of microglia to neuronal and axonal decline in chronic CNS disorders that affect the retina and optic nerve.

In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma

Microglia activation and microgliosis are key responses to chronic neurodegeneration. Here, we present methods for in vivo, long-term visualization of retinal CX3CR1-GFP+ microglial cells by confocal ophthalmoscopy, and for threshold and morphometric analyses to identify and quantify their activation. We monitor microglial changes during early stages of age-related glaucoma.

Microglia, which are CNS-resident neuroimmune cells, transform their morphology and size in response to CNS damage, switching to an activated state with ...

Multimodal Volumetric Retinal Imaging by Oblique Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (oSLO) and Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

While fluorescence imaging is widely used in ophthalmology, a large field of view (FOV) three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence retinal image is still a big challenge with the state-of-the-art retinal imaging modalities because they would require z-stacking to compile a volumetric dataset. Newer optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) systems overcome these restrictions to provide three-dimensional (3D) anatomical and vascular images, but the dye-free nature of OCT cannot visualize leakage indicative of vascular dysfunction. This protocol describes a novel oblique scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (oSLO) technique that provides 3D volumetric fluorescence retinal imaging. The setup of the imaging system generates the oblique scanning by a dove tail slider and aligns the final imaging system at an angle to detect fluorescent cross-sectional images. The system uses the laser scanning method, and therefore, allows an easy incorporation of OCT as a complementary volumetric structural imaging modality. In vivo imaging on rat retina is demonstrated here. Fluorescein solution is intravenously injected to produce volumetric fluorescein angiography (vFA).

Multimodal Volumetric Retinal Imaging by Oblique Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy oSLO and Optical Coherence Tomography OCT

Here, we present a protocol to get a large field of view (FOV) three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence and OCT retinal image by using a novel imaging multimodal platform. We will introduce the system setup, the method of alignment, and the operational protocols. In vivo imaging will be demonstrated, and representative results will be provided.

While fluorescence imaging is widely used in ophthalmology, a large field of view (FOV) three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence retinal image is still a big ...

Bioengineering

Optical Coherence Tomography: Imaging Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells In Vivo

Structural changes in the retina are common manifestations of ophthalmic diseases. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) enables their identification in vivo&#8212;rapidly, repetitively, and at a high resolution. This protocol describes OCT imaging in the mouse retina as a powerful tool to study optic neuropathies (OPN). The OCT system is an interferometry-based, non-invasive alternative to common post mortem histological assays. It provides a fast and accurate assessment of retinal thickness, allowing the possibility to track changes, such as retinal thinning or thickening. We present the imaging process and analysis with the example of the Opa1delTTAG mouse line. Three types of scans are proposed, with two quantification methods: standard and homemade calipers. The latter is best for use on the peripapillary retina during radial scans; being more precise, is preferable for analyzing thinner structures. All approaches described here are designed for retinal ganglion cells (RGC) but are easily adaptable to other cell populations. In conclusion, OCT is efficient in mouse model phenotyping and has the potential to be used for the reliable evaluation of therapeutic interventions.

Optical Coherence Tomography: Imaging Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells In Vivo

This manuscript describes a protocol for the in vivo imaging of the mouse retina with high-resolution spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). It focuses on retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in the peripapillary region, with several scanning and quantifying approaches described.

Structural changes in the retina are common manifestations of ophthalmic diseases. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) enables their identification in ...

Neuroscience

In Vivo Multimodal Imaging and Analysis of Mouse Laser-Induced Choroidal Neovascularization Model

Laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a well-established model to mimic the wet form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). In this protocol, we aim to guide the reader not simply through the technical considerations of generating laser-induced lesions to trigger neovascular processes, but rather focus on the powerful information that can be obtained from multimodal longitudinal in vivo imaging throughout the follow-up period.
The laser-induced mouse CNV model was generated by a diode laser administration. Multimodal in vivo imaging techniques were used to monitor CNV induction, progression and regression. First, spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) was performed immediately after the lasering to verify a break of Bruch&#39;s membrane. Subsequent in vivo imaging using fluorescein angiography (FA) confirmed successful damage of Bruch&#39;s membrane from serial images acquired at the choroidal level. Longitudinal follow-up of CNV proliferation and regression on days 5, 10, and 14 after the lasering was performed using both SD-OCT and FA. Simple and reliable grading of leaky CNV leasions from FA images is&#160;presented. Automated segmentation for measurement of total retinal thickness, combined with manual caliber application for measurement of retinal thickness at CNV sites, allow unbiased evaluation of the presence of edema. Finally, histological verification of CNV is performed using isolectin GS-IB4 staining on choroidal flatmounts. The staining is thresholded, and the isolectin-positive area is calculated with ImageJ.
This protocol is especially useful in therapeutics studies requiring high-throughput-like screening of CNV pathology as it allows fast, multimodal, and reliable classification of CNV pathology and retinal edema. In addition, high resolution SD-OCT enables the recording of other pathological hallmarks, such as the accumulation of subretinal or intraretinal fluid. However, this method does not provide a possibility to automate CNV volume analysis from SD-OCT images, which has to be performed manually.

In Vivo Multimodal Imaging and Analysis of Mouse Laser-Induced Choroidal Neovascularization Model

Here, we present the usefulness of longitudinal in vivo imaging in the follow-up of morphological changes of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization in mice.

Laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a well-established model to mimic the wet form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). In this ...

In vivo Structural Assessments of Ocular Disease in Rodent Models using Optical Coherence Tomography

Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) is useful for visualizing retinal and ocular structures in vivo. In research, SD-OCT is a valuable tool to evaluate and characterize changes in a variety of retinal and ocular disease and injury models. In light induced retinal degeneration models, SD-OCT can be used to track thinning of the photoreceptor layer over time. In glaucoma models, SD-OCT can be used to monitor decreased retinal nerve fiber layer and total retinal thickness and to observe optic nerve cupping after inducing ocular hypertension. In diabetic rodents, SD-OCT has helped researchers observe decreased total retinal thickness as well as decreased thickness of specific retinal layers, particularly the retinal nerve fiber layer with disease progression. In mouse models of myopia, SD-OCT can be used to evaluate axial parameters, such as axial length changes. Advantages of SD-OCT include in vivo imaging of ocular structures, the ability to quantitatively track changes in ocular dimensions over time, and its rapid scanning speed and high resolution. Here, we detail the methods of SD-OCT and show examples of its use in our laboratory in models of retinal degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and myopia. Methods include anesthesia, SD-OCT imaging, and processing of the images for thickness measurements.

Here, we describe the use of spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) to visualize retinal and ocular structures in vivo in models of retinal degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and myopia.

Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) is useful for visualizing retinal and ocular structures in vivo. In research, SD-OCT is a valuable ...

Spatio-Temporal In Vivo Imaging of Ocular Drug Delivery Systems using Fiberoptic Confocal Laser Microendoscopy

Subconjunctival injection is an attractive route to administer ocular drugs due to easy trans-scleral access that bypasses anterior ocular barriers, such as the cornea and conjunctiva. While therapeutic effects and pharmacokinetics of the drugs upon subconjunctival injection have been described in some studies, very few assess the ocular distribution of drugs or drug delivery systems (DDS). The latter is critical for the optimization of intraocular DDS design and drug bioavailability to achieve the desired ocular localization and duration of action (e.g., acute versus. prolonged). This study establishes the use of fiberoptic confocal laser microendoscopy (CLM) to qualitatively study the ocular distribution of fluorescent liposomes in real-time in live mice after sub-conjunctival injection. Being designed for in vivo visual inspection of tissues at the microscopic level, this is also the first full description of the CLM imaging method to study spatio-temporal distribution of injectables in the eye after subconjunctival injection.

Spatio-Temporal In Vivo Imaging of Ocular Drug Delivery Systems using Fiberoptic Confocal Laser Microendoscopy

We present a protocol for the use of fiberoptic confocal laser microendoscopy (CLM) to non-invasively study the spatio-temporal distribution of liposomes in the eye after subconjunctival injection.

Subconjunctival injection is an attractive route to administer ocular drugs due to easy trans-scleral access that bypasses anterior ocular barriers, such ...

Mouse Retina OCT Fibergram Alignment with Confocal Images

Alignment of Visible-Light Optical Coherence Tomography Fibergrams with Confocal Images of the Same Mouse Retina

In recent years, in vivo retinal imaging, which provides non-invasive, real-time, and longitudinal information about biological systems and processes, has been increasingly applied to obtain an objective assessment of neural damage in eye diseases. Ex vivo confocal imaging of the same retina is often necessary to validate the in vivo findings especially in animal research. In this study, we demonstrated a method for aligning an ex vivo confocal image of the mouse retina with its in vivo images. A new clinical-ready imaging technology called visible light optical coherence tomography fibergraphy (vis-OCTF) was applied to acquire in vivo images of the mouse retina. We then performed the confocal imaging of the same retina as the &#34;gold standard&#34; to validate the in vivo vis-OCTF images. This study not only enables further investigation of the molecular and cellular mechanisms but also establishes a foundation for a sensitive and objective evaluation of neural damage in vivo.

Author Spotlight: Advancements in In Vivo and Ex Vivo Retinal Imaging for Improved Glaucoma Diagnosis and Treatment 

The present protocol outlines the steps for aligning in vivo visible-light optical coherence tomography fibergraphy (vis-OCTF) images with ex vivo confocal images of the same mouse retina for the purpose of verifying the observed retinal ganglion cell axon bundle morphology in the in vivo images.

In recent years, in vivo retinal imaging, which provides non-invasive, real-time, and longitudinal information about biological systems and processes, has ...

Application of Optical Coherence Tomography to a Mouse Model of Retinopathy

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) offers a noninvasive method for the diagnosis of retinopathy. The OCT machine can capture retinal crosssectional images from which the retinal thickness can be calculated. Although OCT is widely used in clinical practice, its application in basic research is not as prevalent, especially in small animals such as mice. Because of the small size of their eyeballs, it is challenging to conduct fundus imaging examinations in mice. Therefore, a specialized retinal imaging system is required to accommodate OCT imaging on small animals. This article demonstrates a small-animal-specific system for OCT examination procedures and a detailed method for image analysis. The results of retinal OCT examination of very-low-density lipoprotein receptor (Vldlr) knockout mice and C57BL/6J mice are presented. The OCT images of C57BL/6J mice showed retinal layers, while those of Vldlr knockout mice showed subretinal neovascularization and retinal thinning. In summary, OCT examination could facilitate the noninvasive detection and measurement of retinopathy in mouse models.

Here, we describe an in vivo imaging technique using optical coherence tomography to facilitate the diagnosis and quantitative measurement of retinopathy in mice.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) offers a noninvasive method for the diagnosis of retinopathy. The OCT machine can capture retinal crosssectional images ...

In Vivo Imaging of Retinal Microglia in a Mouse Model of Glaucoma

Source:&#160;<a href='https://app.jove.com/v/52731/in-vivo-dynamics-of-retinal-microglial-activation-during-neurodegeneration-confocal-ophthalmoscopic-imaging-and-cell-morphometry-in-mouse-glaucoma'>Bosco, A.,&#160;et al. In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma. J. Vis. Exp. (2015)</a> &#160;This video demonstrates in vivo imaging of retinal microglia in a mouse model of glaucoma. A transgenic mouse with fluorescent protein-expressing retinal microglia is positioned under an ophthalmoscope. Infrared illumination is used to locate the optic nerve head (ONH), and the focal plane is established using retinal blood vessels as landmarks. Fluorescent imaging is then employed to visualize the fluorescent microglia. Activated microglia, characterized by enlarged cell bodies and reduced branching complexity, are assessed.

Source:&#160;Bosco, A.,&#160;et al. In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell ...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Neuroimaging

Neurodegeneration & Disease Monitoring

Optical Coherence Tomography Imaging for Assessing Uveitis in a Mouse Model

Source: John, S., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/62925">Primed Mycobacterial Uveitis (PMU) as a Model for Post-Infectious Uveitis.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2021)
This video demonstrates an in vivo imaging technique for detecting and quantifying eye inflammation in a mouse model of post-infectious uveitis. The technique, known as optical coherence tomography (OCT), generates high-resolution cross-sectional images of the eye for assessing disease progression.

All procedures involving animal models have been reviewed by the local institutional animal care committee and the JoVE veterinary review board.
1. ...

In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1^gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

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