This work was supported by NIH grant GM50936 to DKB.

NOTE: Some steps of the protocol below require working in a clean fume hood. In addition, the method requires a yeast tetrad dissection microscope equipped with a 10X long working distance objective to monitor spheroplasting. The microscope should be set up in the hood ahead of time. Remove the micromanipulator arm and plate holder from the scope and place these items in a safe place away from the work area.
1. Preparation of Spheroplasts
<ol>
	<li>Grow yeast under desired conditions. Use about 2 x 108 cells for each sample, e.g. 4 ml of a culture at OD600 1.4 = 5 x 107 cells/ml. Although immediate processing of samples may be preferable in some cases, for most applications, cell aliquots can be stored on ice for up to 8 hours before being processed.</li>
	<li>Transfer cell suspension to a 15 ml centrifuge tube and spin in a clinical centrifuge at setting 5 (2345 rpm/857.5 x g) for 3 min to pellet the cells.</li>
	<li>Decant the medium taking care not to lose cells from the pellet. Gently resuspend the cells in 1 ml ZK buffer and then add 40 &#181;l 1 M dithiothreitol (DTT). Incubate 2 min with gentle mixing. Pellet cells as before (see step 1.2).</li>
	<li>Resuspend pellets in 1 ml ZK buffer. Add 5 &#181;l of a freshly prepared solution of zymolyase 100T that has been thoroughly mixed. Incubate for 20-30 min at 30 &#176;C to remove the cell wall and produce spheroplasts.</li>
	<li>Assay a 10 &#181;l droplet of cell suspension on a microscope slide to determine if spheroplasting is complete. Cells viewed under the dissection microscope without a coverslip. Cells should appear bloated and round rather than slightly oblong and should lyse following addition of 20 &#181;l of water. If cells fail to lyse, return the sample to 30 &#176;C and re-assay every 10 min until water induced lysis is readily observed. Pellet cells as before (see step 1.2).</li>
	<li>Gently resuspend and wash cell pellet in 2.5 ml cold MES/sorbitol buffer. Pellet cells as before (see step 1.2). Gently resuspend cell pellet in 300-400 &#181;l cold MES/sorbitol buffer. Cells can be kept on ice at this stage for several hours.</li>
</ol>
2. Chromosome Spreading &#160;
NOTE: The glass surfaces upon which chromosomes will be spread&#8212;either slides or coverslips&#8212;should be prepared ahead of time. Each slide or coverslip should be submerged in water, then EtOH, then allowed to dry, and polished with lens paper. If chromosomes will be spread on coverslips, the coverslip should be affixed to a slide with Scotch tape or rubber cement.&#160; Unless otherwise mentioned, the rest of the protocol will describe spreading on either a slide or coverslip
<ol>
	<li>Using a P20 pipettor, pipet 20 &#181;l of cell suspension onto the surface of a clean slide.</li>
	<li>Using a P200 pipettor, add 40 &#181;l of the 3% PFA/sucrose solution and gently mix the solution by &#8220;swirling&#8221; the slide with the hand until Schlieren lines disappear. Place slide under microscope and confirm that cells are in focus. The PFA solution should be freshly-prepared in the fume hood on the day of use. &#160; 
	NOTE: If the protein of interest has not been examined by the method previously, it is advisable to prepare additional slides using solutions that contain 2 and 4% PFA to determine if retention of the protein is sensitive to fixation conditions. A 4% PFA/sucrose solution is used in cases where it is desirable to visualize associated tubulin microtubules. The disadvantage of the higher fixative concentration is that the chromosomes will be &#8220;underspread,&#8221; 2%PFA also tends to yield &#8220;underspread&#8221; chromosomes.</li>
	<li>Using a P200 pipettor, add 80 &#181;l of 1% Lipsol, swirl as before to mix solutions as completely as possible, start a timer. If Lipsol is not available, 80 &#181;l 1% NP40 or 80 &#181;l dH2O may be substituted (see Representative Results, Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Watch the cells carefully and gently swirl the slide every 15 sec. When roughly 80% of cells have lysed (disappeared) stop the timer, immediately remove the slide from the microscope, add 80 &#181;l of PFA/sucrose solution, and swirl to mix. Lysis should occur from between 30 and 90 sec after starting the timer. &#160; 
	NOTE: If several slides show lysis at about the same time, one can eventually omit microscopic monitoring for the remainder of the slides and simply carefully time the period between addition of lipsol and addition of the final aliquot of fixative. However, this short cut is only reliable when preparing multiple slides from the same sample. It is best to monitor lysis of each sample microscopically when different slides are prepared from samples taken at different times or from different cultures.</li>
	<li>Place the slide on a clean flat surface and spread the liquid across the entire unfrosted surface of the slide using the side of a clean, disposable Pasture pipet held below the meniscus of the &#8220;puddle&#8221; but above the surface of the slide itself, i.e. do not &#8220;rake&#8221; the surface of the slide with the pipet. Do not reuse pipet on different slides to avoid contamination of samples.</li>
	<li>Leave the slides to dry overnight in the fume hood. Insoluble nuclear components will settle onto the slide surface and bind to it. For large experiments, planning the use of space for the drying step is important.</li>
	<li>Once dried, optimal results are obtained by progressing to the immunostaining stage on the same day. However, the dried sucrose solution embeds the spread chromosomes in a &#8220;honey&#8221; that allows freezing of samples: slides can be transferred to a plastic slide box and stored at -20 &#176;C for years.</li>
</ol>
3. Immunostaining
<ol>
	<li>Dip slides in 0.2% Photo-Flo for 30 sec. to remove honey. Lean slides on an edge, with the edge resting on a paper towel, to remove residual Photo-Flo.</li>
	<li>Dip slides in 1x TBS for 5 min to wash. Remove excess liquid by leaning slides on an edge, but do not let them dry out.</li>
	<li>Lay slides frosted side up, pipet 300 &#181;l TBS/BSA onto the slide across the unfrosted portion of the slide.</li>
	<li>Incubate in a moist chamber at RT for 15 min. (large plastic container lined with water saturated paper towels under a perforated metal plate or plastic slide box with saturated paper towels).</li>
	<li>Drain slides by resting a short edge of the slide on a paper towel and leaning the slide against an appropriate support (such as a test tube rack). Do not allow surface to dry.</li>
	<li>Immediately apply 80 &#181;l of TBS/BSA buffer containing the appropriate dilution of primary antibody. If antibody is limiting, use 40 &#181;l and a 22 x 22 mm coverslip. For crude rabbit serum, this is typically between a 1/50 and 1/500 dilution. &#160; 
	NOTE: Perform titrations for new antibody preparations. The most dilute preparation that yields high signal above background is chosen. To control for the level of background staining, nuclei should be prepared from the appropriate deletion mutant strain and/or duplicate slides should be stained with pre-immune serum.</li>
	<li>Place a polished 22 x 50 mm coverslip on the slide avoiding bubbles. Do this by holding the coverslip between the thumb and index finger along the long edge at positions near one short edge. Holding the coverslip at a 30&#176; angle relative to slide, the short edge farthest from the fingers is lowered until it rests on the slide just inside the edge of the &#8220;puddle&#8221; closest to the frosted region of the slide. Then slowly lower the coverslip in a smooth motion until the fingers holding the slide touch the bench, and then release. Do not attempt to adjust the position of the coverslip once it lands. &#160; 
	NOTE: If chromosome spreads were prepared on affixed coverslips (rather than directly on the surface of slides), this sample coverslip will remain affixed to the slide throughout the staining and washing steps. An additional coverslip will be placed on top of the sample coverslip to evenly distribute the antibody solution during staining and then discarded.</li>
	<li>Place slides in a sealed moist chamber and incubate overnight at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Holding the frosted edge transfer the slides to a glass slide staining rack and submerge in a staining jar containing TBS.</li>
	<li>Gently dip the slide up and down to remove the coverslip. Try not to use too much force to do this. Wash the slides 2x 10 min by submerging in TBS. Remove slides from rack and drain excess liquid by touching edge to paper towel. Do not let surface dry.</li>
	<li>Working under subdued light, immediately add 80 &#181;l TBS/BSA containing a 1/1,000 fold dilution of fluorochrome conjugated secondary antibody (or 40 &#181;l with a 22 x 22 mm coverslip). Add coverslip as before and incubate at 4 &#176;C for 2 hr in the moist chamber in the dark.</li>
	<li>Remove coverslips as before, drain slides, and allow surface to air dry for 1 to 2 hr in the dark. Lean slides on paper towels as before. &#160; 
	NOTE: If spreading was performed on a mounted coverslip, detach the coverslip from the slide before drying. Coverslips are then dried as described for slides in the previous step.</li>
	<li>Working under subdued light, add about 30 &#181;l of mounting medium containing DAPI (three 10 &#181;l droplets) and then carefully lower a coverslip. If the spreads are on coverslips, place the droplets of mounting medium on a clean slide and lower the coverslip, chromosome side down, onto the slide.</li>
	<li>Still under subdued light, wait 2 min for coverslip to settle and seal edges of coverslip with clear nail polish. Place slides in a flat slide box. &#160; 
	NOTE: For STED microscopy, mount with ProLong Gold. Use 30 &#181;l of ProLong Gold without DAPI and allow to cure overnight. Sealing with nail polish is unnecessary.</li>
	<li>View slides by widefield epifluorescence microscopy with a 40 or 100X objective using a filter set appropriate for DAPI to focus. Optionally store the slide in the dark at 4 &#176;C for several weeks. Do not freeze.</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Loidl, J., Nairz, K., Klein, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Meiotic+chromosome+synapsis+in+a+haploid+yeast%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Chromosoma%22%5BJournal%5D)">Meiotic chromosome synapsis in a haploid yeast.</a> Chromosoma. 100 (4), 221-228 (1991).</li>
<li>Loidl, J., Klein, F., Engebrecht, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Genetic+and+morphological+approaches+for+the+analysis+of+meiotic+chromosomes+in+yeast%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+in+cell+biology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Genetic and morphological approaches for the analysis of meiotic chromosomes in yeast.</a> Methods in cell biology. 53, 257-285 (1998).</li>
<li>Lydall, D., Nikolsky, Y., Bishop, D. K., Weinert, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+meiotic+recombination+checkpoint+controlled+by+mitotic+checkpoint+genes%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature%22%5BJournal%5D)">A meiotic recombination checkpoint controlled by mitotic checkpoint genes.</a> Nature. 383 (6603), 840-843 (1996).</li>
<li>Bishop, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((RecA+homologs+Dmc1+and+Rad51+interact+to+form+multiple+nuclear+complexes+prior+to+meiotic+chromosome+synapsis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">RecA homologs Dmc1 and Rad51 interact to form multiple nuclear complexes prior to meiotic chromosome synapsis.</a> Cell. 79, 1081-1092 (1994).</li>
<li>Rabitsch, K. P., Galova, M., Schleiffer, A., Buonomo, S. B., Nasmyth, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Functional+genomics+identifies+Monopolin%3A+a+kinetochore+protein+required+for+segregation+of+homologs+during+meiosis+I%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell%22%5BJournal%5D)">Functional genomics identifies Monopolin: a kinetochore protein required for segregation of homologs during meiosis I.</a> Cell. 103 (7), 1155-1168 (2000).</li>
<li>Gasior, S. L., Olivares, H., Ear, U., Hari, D. M., Weichselbaum, R., Bishop, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Assembly+of+RecA-like+recombinases%3A+Distinct+roles+for+mediator+proteins+in+mitosis+and+meiosis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PNAS%22%5BJournal%5D)">Assembly of RecA-like recombinases: Distinct roles for mediator proteins in mitosis and meiosis.</a> PNAS. 98 (15), 8411-8418 (2001).</li>
<li>Biggins, S., Murray, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+budding+yeast+protein+kinase+Ipl1%2FAurora+allows+the+absence+of+tension+to+activate+the+spindle+checkpoint%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Genes+%26+Development%22%5BJournal%5D)">The budding yeast protein kinase Ipl1/Aurora allows the absence of tension to activate the spindle checkpoint.</a> Genes & Development. 15 (23), 3118-3129 (2001).</li>
<li>Dresser, M. E., Giroux, C. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Meiotic+chromosome+behavior+in+spread+preparations+of+yeast%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22The+Journal+of+Cell+Biology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Meiotic chromosome behavior in spread preparations of yeast.</a> The Journal of Cell Biology. , (1988).</li>
<li>Lao, J. P., Cloud, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Meiotic+crossover+control+by+concerted+action+of+Rad51-Dmc1+in+homolog+template+bias+and+robust+homeostatic+regulation%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLOS+Genetics%22%5BJournal%5D)">Meiotic crossover control by concerted action of Rad51-Dmc1 in homolog template bias and robust homeostatic regulation.</a> PLOS Genetics. 9 (12), e1003978-e1003978 (2013).</li>
<li>Vonesch, C., Unser, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+fast+thresholded+landweber+algorithm+for+wavelet-regularized+multidimensional+deconvolution.+IEEE+transactions+on+image+processing+%3A+a+publication+of+the%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22IEEE+Signal+Processing+Society%22%5BJournal%5D)">A fast thresholded landweber algorithm for wavelet-regularized multidimensional deconvolution. IEEE transactions on image processing : a publication of the.</a> IEEE Signal Processing Society. 17 (4), 539-549 (2008).</li>
</ol>

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

The appearance of spread nuclei critically depends upon the balance between fixation and lysis/detergent treatment. As discussed above, the preservation of varying cellular structures requires the use of different PFA concentrations. For most proteins, 3% PFA is optimal. However, preservation of spindles requires use of 4% PFA. Even with a single set of reagents, the timing of lysis relative to fixation can also affect the quality of spread nuclei. For the most consistent results, the time of lysis should be normalize...

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae offers many advantages for studies of molecular mechanisms of biological processes, including the study of proteins that control chromosome function. Although there are well-known advantages of budding yeast for genetic, molecular, and biochemical studies, cytological studies of the distribution of proteins in the cell&#8217;s nucleus is complicated by its small size. The typical yeast nucleus has a diameter of less than one micron, which is only about 5 times the resolution limit of visible light. Thus, the amount of information about the distribution of nuclear proteins that can be obtained from conventional immunostaining or by using fluorescent protein tags, such as green fluorescent protein (GFP), is limited. A useful approach to characterizing the subnuclear distribution of proteins is chromosome surface spreading. This approach involves removing the cell wall, disrupting cell and nuclear membranes, and allowing the insoluble contents of the nucleus to settle onto the surface of a microscope slide. These insoluble components include the nuclear matrix and the chromosomes. In addition to allowing removal of soluble nuclear contents, which enhances the ability to detect chromatin bound proteins, the chromosome spreading method results in substantial decompression of chromosomes such that the spread nuclei have diameters of around 3 to 5 &#181;m (for diploid meiotic nuclei) and 2 to 3 &#181;m for diploid mitotic nuclei. This decompression allows detection of nuclear substructure that is relatively difficult or impossible to resolve in intact nuclei.
An obvious shortcoming to chromosome spreading is the possibility that the spreading procedure may partially or completely disrupt the structure of interest. Of particular concern is that a particular chromosome bound protein might be lost as a consequence of the spreading procedure. This potential complication should be kept in mind when interpreting data. One example of a protein that is sensitive to the spreading procedure is beta-tubulin. Under some conditions, the spindle, which is comprised mainly of tubulin, is preserved during spreading3. Visualization of the spindle is often useful to stage nuclei of interest. However, visualizing tubulin requires treatment with a high concentration fixative; spindles are lost under the standard conditions described below. This example illustrates that, when analyzing the distribution of a previously uncharacterized protein, it is important to vary the concentration of fixative to determine how sensitive the protein is to such variation. In spite of the concern regarding the impact of the spreading conditions on chromosome structure, the utility and power of the spreading method has been demonstrated in many contexts and has broad utility in characterization of mitotic and, especially meiotic cells4-7.
Two spreading methods have been used extensively. The first of these methods, developed by Dresser and Giroux8, avoids the use of detergent and can yield spread preparations that appear to have relatively well-preserved chromosome morphology when stained for the DNA-specific dye DAPI. However, this method is relatively difficult to perfect and the quality of the spread nuclei varies dramatically, when one region of a slide is compared to other regions. This problem can complicate quantitative approaches that involve imaging many unselected nuclei from one slide to avoid data acquisition bias. The second chromosome spreading method, developed by Loidl and Klein1, involves balancing fixation by paraformaldehyde, with lysis and chromatin decompression promoted by a detergent solution. When properly performed, this method gives very reproducible results with less region-to-region variation compared to the Dresser and Giroux method. This presentation focuses on a modified version of the method of Loidl and Klein, because of its reliability and simplicity.
Chromosome spreading is not complicated or time-consuming; up to 100 slides can be prepared for immunostaining in a single day. Furthermore, the spread preparations may be stored in the freezer for years prior to immunostaining, and thus labs can develop a repository of frozen chromosome spreads that can be used when new biological questions arise or new staining reagents become available.
The chromosome spreading method is most commonly used in combination with immunostaining and widefield fluorescence microscopy, but it is also possible to prepare slides for super-resolution light microscopic methods such as stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Zymolyase</td><td>US Biological&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Z1004</td><td>Prepare 20 mg/mL solution in 50 mM Tris pH 7.5 supplemented with 2% glucose. Prepare fresh each experiment and store at 4&amp;deg;C until ready for use.</td></tr><tr><td>Lipsol&amp;nbsp;</td><td>L.I.P. Ltd&amp;nbsp;</td><td>no longer commercially available</td><td>Prepare 1% (v/v) solution in water. Store on ice.</td></tr><tr><td>NP-40</td><td>USB</td><td>19628</td><td>Prepare 1% (v/v) solution in water. Store on ice.</td></tr><tr><td>Tween 20</td><td>Sigma</td><td>P2287</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Slides</td><td>Corning</td><td>2948-75x25</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Standard coverslip</td><td>Fisher</td><td>12-544-E or 12-540-B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>High resolution coverslips</td><td>Fisher</td><td>12-542-B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Photo-Flo 200 solution</td><td>Kodak</td><td>P-7417</td><td>Prepare 0.2% (v/v) solution in water.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>TBS</td><td></td><td></td><td>137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 24.7 mM Tris, pH 8</td></tr><tr><td>BSA</td><td>Sigma</td><td>A2153</td><td>Prepare a 1% (w/v) solution in TBS. Store at 4&amp;deg;C for up to a month.</td></tr><tr><td>Primary antibody</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alexa Fluor 488 Donkey Anti-Rabbit</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>A-21206</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IgG (H+L) Antibody</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vectashield mounting media with DAPI</td><td>Vector&lt;br/&gt; Laboratories</td><td>H-1200</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ProLong Gold</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>P36930</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plastic slide box</td><td>Fisher</td><td>03-448-1</td><td>Store slides containing dried spreads in slots at -20&amp;deg;C. Also, use as a wet chamber.</td></tr><tr><td>Cardboard slide box</td><td>Fisher</td><td>12-587-10</td><td>Use to conveniently transport stained/sealed slides or store at 4&amp;deg;C.</td></tr><tr><td>Coplin jar</td><td>Fisher</td><td>08-816</td><td>Use as a wash basin for slides.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

surface spreading and immunostaining of yeast chromosomes

The small size of nuclei of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae limits the utility of light microscopy for analysis of the subnuclear distribution of chromatin-bound proteins. Surface spreading of yeast nuclei results in expansion of chromatin without loss of bound proteins. A method for surface spreading balances fixation of DNA bound proteins with detergent treatment. The method demonstrated is slightly modified from that described by Josef Loidl and Franz Klein1,2. The method has been used to characterize the localization of many chromatin-bound proteins at various stages of the mitotic cell cycle, but is especially useful for the study of meiotic chromosome structures such as meiotic recombinosomes and the synaptonemal complex. We also describe a modification that does not require use of Lipsol, a proprietary detergent, which was called for in the original procedure, but no longer commercially available. An immunostaining protocol that is compatible with the chromosome spreading method is also described.

The appearance of spread nuclei critically depends upon the balance between chromosome fixation and de-compaction. Even when the reagents are properly balanced, variation in the degree of chromosome de-compaction can occur in different regions of the same slide and/or between different slides. Thus, the quality of spreads in a given region of a slide should be assessed before images are interpreted.
The effects of &#8220;overspreading&#8221; and &#8220;underspreading&#8221; can be illustrated ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Surface Spreading and Immunostaining of Yeast Chromosomes at JoVE.com

Surface Spreading and Immunostaining of Yeast Chromosomes

A method for surface-spreading chromosomes from budding yeast is presented. This method is derived from a method previously described by Loidl and Klein. In addition, we demonstrate a procedure for immunostaining of spread chromosomes.

The small size of nuclei of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae limits the utility of light microscopy for analysis of the subnuclear distribution ...

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Biology

9.9K Views.  University of Chicago. A method for surface-spreading chromosomes from budding yeast is presented. This method is derived from a method previously described by Loidl and Klein. In addition, we demonstrate a procedure for immunostaining of spread chromosomes.

Video: Surface Spreading and Immunostaining of Yeast Chromosomes

Analysis of the Development of a Morphological Phenotype as a Function of Protein Concentration in Budding Yeast

Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of phenotype development as a function of protein concentration at population and single-cell levels in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Although this protocol is based on the overexpression of a protein, it can easily be adapted for morphological phenotypes dependent on suppression of protein expression. Our lab is interested in studying the signaling properties of the endocytic adaptor protein epsin. To that purpose we used a dominant negative approach in which we over-expressed the conserved Epsin N-Terminal Homology (ENTH) domain in order to interfere with the functions of endogenous epsin-2 (Ent2 or YLR206W). We observed that overexpression of the ENTH domain of Ent2 (ENTH2) in wild type cells led to a cell division defect that is dependent on the mislocalization of a family of scaffolding proteins, septins.

Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of phenotype development as a function of protein concentration at population and single-cell levels in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of ...

Visualizing Yeast Organelles with Fluorescent Protein Markers

The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a classic model system in studying organelle function and dynamics. In our previous works, we have constructed fluorescent protein-based markers for major organelles and endomembrane structures, including the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, endosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, peroxisomes, lipid droplets, and autophagosomes. The protocol presented here describes the procedures for using these markers in yeast, including DNA preparation for yeast transformation, selection and evaluation of transformants, fluorescent microscopic observation, and the expected outcomes. The text is geared toward researchers who are entering the field of yeast organelle study from other backgrounds. Essential steps are covered, as well as technical notes about microscope hardware considerations and several common pitfalls. It provides a starting point for people to observe yeast subcellular entities by live-cell fluorescent microscopy. These tools and methods can be used to identify protein subcellular localization and track organelles of interest in time-lapse imaging.

Here we describe the use of a set of fluorescent protein-based organelle markers in live-cell imaging of the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a classic model system in studying organelle function and dynamics. In our previous works, we have ...

Biochemistry

Yeast Colony Embedding Method

Patterning of different cell types in embryos is a key mechanism in metazoan development. Communities of microorganisms, such as colonies and biofilms also display patterns of cell types. For example, in the yeast S. cerevisiae, sporulated cells and pseudohyphal cells are not uniformly distributed in colonies. The functional importance of patterning and the molecular mechanisms that underlie these patterns are still poorly understood.
One challenge with respect to investigating patterns of cell types in fungal colonies is that unlike metazoan tissue, cells in colonies are relatively weakly attached to one another. In particular, fungal colonies do not contain the same extensive level of extracellular matrix found in most tissues . Here we report on a method for embedding and sectioning yeast colonies that reveals the interior patterns of cell types in these colonies. The method can be used to prepare thick sections (0.5 &mu;) useful for light microscopy and thin sections (0.1 &mu;) suitable for transmission electron microscopy. Asci and pseudohyphal cells can easily be distinguished from ovoid yeast cells by light microscopy , while the interior structure of these cells can be visualized by EM.
The method is based on surrounding colonies with agar, infiltrating them with Spurr's medium, and then sectioning. Colonies with a diameter in the range of 1-2 mm are suitable for this protocol. In addition to visualizing the interior of colonies, the method allows visualization of the region of the colony that invades the underlying agar.

A method for embedding yeast colonies allowing sectioning for light and electron microscopy. This protocol allows determination of the distribution of sporulated cells and pseudohyphal cells within colonies providing a new tool toward understanding the organization of cell types within a fungal community.

Patterning of  different cell types in embryos is a key mechanism in metazoan development. Communities of microorganisms, such as colonies and biofilms ...

Microarray Analysis for Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In this protocol, gene expression in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is changed after exposure to oxidative stress induced by the addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), an oxidizing agent. In the experiment, yeast is grown for 48 hours in 1/2X YPD broth containing 3X glucose. The culture is split into a control and treated group. The experiment culture is treated with 0.5 mM H2O2 in Hanks Buffered Saline (HBSS) for 1 hour. The control culture is treated with HBSS only. Total RNA is extracted from both cultures and is converted to a biotin-labeled cRNA product through a multistep process. The final synthesis product is taken back to the UVM Microarray Core Facility and hybridized to the Affymetrix yeast GeneChips. The resulting gene expression data are uploaded into bioinformatics data analysis software.

Microarray Analysis for Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In this protocol, gene expression in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is changed after exposure to oxidative stress induced by the addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), an oxidizing agent.

In this protocol, gene expression in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is changed after exposure to oxidative stress induced by the addition of hydrogen ...

Quantitative Live Cell Fluorescence-microscopy Analysis of Fission Yeast

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using fluorochromes like Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) directly attached to the protein of interest has become increasingly popular 1. Using GFP and similar fluorochromes the subcellular localisations and movements of proteins can be detected in a fluorescent microscope. Moreover, also the subnuclear localisation of a certain region of a chromosome can be studied using this technique. GFP is fused to the Lac Repressor protein (LacR) and ectopically expressed in the cell where tandem repeats of the lacO sequence has been inserted into the region of interest on the chromosome2. The LacR-GFP will bind to the lacO repeats and that area of the genome will be visible as a green dot in the fluorescence microscope. Yeast is especially suited for this type of manipulation since homologous recombination is very efficient and thereby enables targeted integration of the lacO repeats and engineered fusion proteins with GFP 3. Here we describe a quantitative method for live cell analysis of fission yeast. Additional protocols for live cell analysis of fission yeast can be found, for example on how to make a movie of the meiotic chromosomal behaviour 4. In this particular experiment we focus on subnuclear organisation and how it is affected during gene induction. We have labelled a gene cluster, named Chr1, by the introduction of lacO binding sites in the vicinity of the genes. The gene cluster is enriched for genes that are induced early during nitrogen starvation of fission yeast 5. In the strain the nuclear membrane (NM) is labelled by the attachment of mCherry to the NM protein Cut11 giving rise to a red fluorescent signal. The Spindle Pole body (SPB) compound Sid4 is fused to Red Fluorescent Protein (Sid4-mRFP) 6. In vegetatively growing yeast cells the centromeres are always attached to the SPB that is embedded in the NM 7. The SPB is identified as a large round structure in the NM. By imaging before and 20 minutes after depletion of the nitrogen source we can determine the distance between the gene cluster (GFP) and the NM/SPB. The mean or median distances before and after nitrogen depletion are compared and we can thus quantify whether or not there is a shift in subcellular localisation of the gene cluster after nitrogen depletion.

The fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is a good model system to study basic cellular processes. Here we describe a method to perform quantitative live cell analysis of fission yeast. In this particular experiment we focus on organisation of the genome within the cell nucleus, but the method can also be used to study cytosolic factors.

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using ...

Visualization of Candida albicans in the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract Using Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Candida albicans is a fungal component of the gut microbiota in humans and many other mammals. Although C. albicans does not cause symptoms in most colonized hosts, the commensal reservoir does serve as a repository for infectious disease, and the presence of high fungal titers in the gut is associated with inflammatory bowel disease. Here, we describe a method to visualize C. albicans cell morphology and localization in a mouse model of stable gastrointestinal colonization. Colonization is established using a single dose of C. albicans in animals that have been treated with oral antibiotics. Segments of gut tissue are fixed in a manner that preserves the architecture of luminal contents (microorganisms and mucus) as well as the host mucosa. Finally, fluorescent in situ hybridization is performed using probes against fungal rRNA to stain for C. albicans and hyphae. A key advantage of this protocol is that it allows for simultaneous observation of C. albicans cell morphology and its spatial association with host structures during gastrointestinal colonization.

Visualization of Candida albicans in the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract Using Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

The purpose of this protocol is to visualize Candida albicans cell shape and localization in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract.

Candida albicans is a fungal component of the gut microbiota in humans and many other mammals. Although C. albicans does not cause symptoms in most ...

Immunology and Infection

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for using FISH to quantify the number of mRNAs in single yeast cells. Cells can be grown in any condition of interest and then fixed and made permeable. Subsequently, multiple single-stranded deoxyoligonucleotides conjugated to fluorescent dyes are used to label and visualize mRNAs. Diffraction-limited fluorescence from single mRNA molecules is quantified using a spot-detection algorithm to identify and count the number of mRNAs per cell. While the more standard quantification methods of northern blots, RT-PCR and gene expression microarrays provide information on average mRNAs in the bulk population, FISH facilitates both the counting and localization of these mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This protocol describes an experimental procedure for performing Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for counting mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for ...

Microscopy of Fission Yeast Sexual Lifecycle

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe has been an invaluable model system in studying the regulation of the mitotic cell cycle progression, the mechanics of cell division and cell polarity. Furthermore, classical experiments on its sexual reproduction have yielded results pivotal to current understanding of DNA recombination and meiosis. More recent analysis of fission yeast mating has raised interesting questions on extrinsic stimuli response mechanisms, polarized cell growth and cell-cell fusion. To study these topics in detail we have developed a simple protocol for microscopy of the entire sexual lifecycle. The method described here is easily adjusted to study specific mating stages. Briefly, after being grown to exponential phase in a nitrogen-rich medium, cell cultures are shifted to a nitrogen-deprived medium for periods of time suited to the stage of the sexual lifecycle that will be explored. Cells are then mounted on custom, easily built agarose pad chambers for imaging. This approach allows cells to be monitored from the onset of mating to the final formation of spores.

We provide a reproducible basic method for the long-term microscopy of the fission yeast sexual lifecycle. With minor adjustments described, the presented protocol allows research focus on different steps of the reproductive process.

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe has been an invaluable model system in studying the regulation of the mitotic cell cycle progression, the ...

Examination of Mitotic and Meiotic Fission Yeast Nuclear Dynamics by Fluorescence Live-cell Microscopy

Live-cell imaging is a microscopy technique used to examine cell and protein dynamics in living cells. This imaging method is not toxic, generally does not interfere with cell physiology, and requires minimal experimental handling. The low levels of technical interference enable researchers to study cells across multiple cycles of mitosis and to observe meiosis from beginning to end. Using fluorescent tags such as Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) and Red Fluorescent Protein (RFP), researchers can analyze different factors whose functions are important for processes like transcription, DNA replication, cohesion, and segregation. Coupled with data analysis using Fiji (a free, optimized ImageJ version), live-cell imaging offers various ways of assessing protein movement, localization, stability, and timing, as well as nuclear dynamics and chromosome segregation. However, as is the case with other microscopy methods, live-cell imaging is limited by the intrinsic properties of light, which put a limit to the resolution power at high magnifications, and is also sensitive to photobleaching or phototoxicity at high wavelength frequencies. However, with some care, investigators can bypass these physical limitations by carefully choosing the right conditions, strains, and fluorescent markers to allow for the appropriate visualization of mitotic and meiotic events.

Here, we present live-cell imaging which is a non-toxic microscopy method that allows researchers to study protein behavior and nuclear dynamics in living fission yeast cells during mitosis and meiosis.

Live-cell imaging is a microscopy technique used to examine cell and protein dynamics in living cells. This imaging method is not toxic, generally does ...

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy has revolutionized the understanding of meiotic cell-cycle events by providing temporal and spatial data that is often not seen by imaging fixed cells. Budding yeast has proved to be an important model organism to study meiotic chromosome segregation because many meiotic genes are highly conserved. Time-lapse microscopy of meiosis in budding yeast allows the monitoring of different meiotic mutants to show how the mutation disrupts meiotic processes. However, many proteins function at multiple points in meiosis. The use of loss-of-function or meiotic null mutants can therefore disrupt an early process, blocking or disturbing the later process and making it difficult to determine the phenotypes associated with each individual role. To circumvent this challenge, this protocol describes how the proteins can be conditionally depleted from the nucleus at specific stages of meiosis while monitoring meiotic events using time-lapse microscopy. Specifically, this protocol describes how the cells are synchronized in prophase I, how the anchor away technique is used to deplete proteins from the nucleus at specific meiotic stages, and how time-lapse imaging is used to monitor meiotic chromosome segregation. As an example of the usefulness of the technique, the kinetochore protein Ctf19 was depleted from the nucleus at different time points during meiosis, and the number of chromatin masses was analyzed at the end of meiosis II. Overall, this protocol can be adapted to deplete different nuclear proteins from the nucleus while monitoring the meiotic divisions.

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae

Time-lapse microscopy is a valuable tool for studying meiosis in budding yeast. This protocol describes a method that combines cell-cycle synchronization, time-lapse microscopy, and conditional depletion of a target protein to demonstrate how to study the function of a specific protein during meiotic chromosome segregation.

Time-lapse fluorescence microscopy has revolutionized the understanding of meiotic cell-cycle events by providing temporal and spatial data that is often ...

Surface Spreading and Immunostaining of Yeast Chromosomes

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Visualization of Candida albicans in the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract Using Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Microscopy of Fission Yeast Sexual Lifecycle

Examination of Mitotic and Meiotic Fission Yeast Nuclear Dynamics by Fluorescence Live-cell Microscopy

Use of Time-Lapse Microscopy and Stage-Specific Nuclear Depletion of Proteins to Study Meiosis in S. cerevisiae