We thank Simon Hayward (Vanderbilt University Medical Center) for the BPH-1 cells; and Thomas Cox and Janine Erler (Biotech Research &amp; Innovation Centre, University of Copenhagen) for their assistance with rheological measurements. MR-T was funded by Worldwide Cancer Research, formerly The Association of International Cancer Research (Grant 08-0803 to JS), The British Embassy Montevideo and Agencia Nacional de Investigacion e Innovacion (UK_RH_2015_1_2 to MR-T). MC was supported by Prostate Cancer UK (Grant S14-017 to JS and GS). KW was funded by The China Scholarship Council. MAM was funded by The Saudi Arabian Cultural Bureau.

<ol>
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The authors have nothing to disclose.

A protocol for the generation of 3D glandular acini from MECs in pure rBM gels6 was modified in a previous study by the addition of 4 mg/ml type I collagen to the rBM matrix. The addition of collagen resulted in the elastic modulus of the rBM gel increasing from 175 &#177; 37 to 1589 &#177; 380 Pascals. This 9.1-fold increase in stiffness modulated the growth, survival, migration and differentiation of MECs21. The protocol was modified again by including a treatment step with D-(-)-ribose to promote non-enzymatic crosslinking of the type I collagen that had been added to the rBM gel. The resultant 15-fold increase in stiffness was found to cooperate with oncogenic transformation of MECs to promote their invasive behavior22. The experimental approach of adding type I collagen to rBM gels facilitates the direct interaction of MECs with collagen fibres, which only occurs in human tissue after the physical barrier between the stroma and epithelium provided by the BM undergoes proteolytic degradation. By generating 3D glandular acini from PECs in pure rBM gels pre-treated with GLA, the current protocol opens the way to study how BM stiffness per se can trigger their invasive behaviour (Figure 3). The levels of BM stiffness induced in this protocol have physiological relevance. Incubation with 50 mM GLA for 6 hr and 14 hr respectively increased the elastic moduli of the pure rBM gel to 175 &#177; 90 and 322 &#177; 160 compared to 122 &#177; 55 Pascals in rBM gels treated with PBS (Table 1). This 1.7 to 3.2-fold increase in rBM stiffness recapitulates the 2.5- to 3.4-fold increase in stiffness observed in malignant compared to normal prostate or BPH tissue23-26. As outlined in a recent publication13 the morphological changes induced by the accumulation of AGE and rBM stiffness in PEC acini can be quantified for a statistically significant shift from a rounded to polygonal shape, decreased luminal/total acinar area, and protruding cells migrating from the acina into the AGE-rich rBM (Figure 3). Immunoblotting can also be used to assess markers of EMT (e.g. loss of E-cadherin13) and the contractile behavior (e.g. phosphorylated myosin light chain-2, pMLC213) in PECs grown in normal versus stiff rBM (Figure 3). Further evaluation using immunofluorescent staining and confocal microscopy can be applied to visualize the BM (e.g. laminin, collagen IV and AGE accumulation13), cellular apical-to-basal polarity (e.g. apical localization of EEA1: early endosomal antigen 1; and GM130: 130 kDa cis-Golgi marker13) and cellular patterns of adhesion molecules (e.g. E-cadherin localization to cell-cell junctions13) (Figure 3).
<img alt="Figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Overview of the Different Protocols Presented Here. The diagram depicts how to prepare and stiffen the reconstituted basement membrane (rBM) with glycolaldehyde (Maillard reaction), how to seed cells on to the stiff rBM, how to analyze the stiff rBM (extent of Maillard reaction) and procedures that can be used to analyze the cellular and molecular changes induced by AGE-rich rBM. AGE, advanced glycation endproducts; BM, basement membrane; DAPI, 4&#39;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; EEA1, early endosomal antigen 1; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GLA, glycolaldehyde; GEE, glycine ethyl ester; GM130, 130 kDa cis-Golgi marker; p-MLC2 (Thr18/Ser19), myosin light chain-2 phosphorylated at sites threonine 18 and serine 19; rBM, reconstituted basement membrane; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. For RWPE1 acini Scale bar = 10 &#181;m; for PC3 tumor cell spheroids Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. This figure has been modified from reference13. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Troubleshooting steps will be necessary if D-(-)-ribose is chosen as the crosslinking agent for rBM. During protocol development it was found that treatment with 1 M D-(-)-ribose for 72 hr, as previously described for rBM/collagen gels22, resulted in the dehydration and shrinkage of rBM gels. The evaluation of lower concentrations of D-(-)-ribose and shorter treatment times may help to overcome this limitation.
A potential limitation in future applications of the protocol could be encountered where higher levels of rBM stiffness are desired. If longer incubation times and higher concentrations of GLA are used to induce higher levels of rBM gel stiffness it will be necessary to assess whether these treatment conditions have an impact on cell survival and proliferation, as previously described13. It should also be noted that incubation of RWPE-1 cells with serum induces a phenotypic EMT-like transition and exposure to serum or serum-containing materials should be avoided. For example, if experiments involve the transfection of short interfering RNA (siRNA) oligonucleotides, the procedure should be optimized using RWPE-1 cells grown in KSFM, without switching the cells to low serum transfection media. This drawback could compromise the level of gene silencing achieved when using transient siRNA approaches in the model. For some protein targets it would be advised to employ inducible shRNA vectors for tunable gene silencing and the desired decrease in protein levels. Adaptations that incorporate enzymatic crosslinking by stromal cell or tumor cell associated lysyl oxidase (LOX)17 could also be incorporated into future models.
This protocol will facilitate the future study of pro-invasive mechanisms triggered by AGE-dependent BM stiffness in PECs (RWPE-1, BPH-1) and evaluation of anti-metastatic targets in invasive PTCs (PC3). Given that BPH is considered to be a metabolic disorder27, this protocol also paves the way towards our improved understanding of the link between metabolic disorders and increased prostate cancer risk. Given that BM stiffness induced by its exposure to AGEs may be a trigger for invasiveness in other cancer types, it will be of interest to use the protocol to set up similar models that incorporate normal epithelial cells and tumor cells from other organs (e.g. breast, colon, ovaries, pancreas).
Critical steps within the protocol, together with their timings, are summarized in Figure 4. During the initial step it is essential to maintain the stock solution of rBM at 4 &#176;C while it thaws to prevent its polymerization. Pipette tips should not be placed into the rM stock solution until they have been chilled to 4 &#176;C. For the next step it is also important to ensure the chamber slides have equilibrated to 4 &#176;C before they are coated with the rBM solution. As soon as the temperature of the rBM solution is increased above 4 &#176;C it will undergo irreversible polymerization to form a gel. It essential that the rBM is not disturbed during the polymerization stage to ensure that it forms an even surface suitable for cell culture and microscopic analysis. The duration of incubation with GLA with or without inhibitors of the Maillard reaction (sodium cyanoborohydride and amingoguanidine) will determine how stiff the rBM gel becomes. It is recommended to use a 6 hr incubation with GLA if semi-stiff conditions are required, and 14 hr incubation if stiff conditions are required (Table 1). Alternate incubation times or concentrations of GLA can be used if different levels of stiffness are desired. In this case rheological analysis of the rBM gels need to be incorporated as an essential step. Following the step of quenching the Maillard reaction by incubation with GEE and the subsequent washing steps with PBS, the rBM gels can be used immediately or stored at 4 &#176;C for up to 48 hr prior to their use for cell culture. Once cell cultures are set up it is important to change the culture medium (including any treatments) every two days. It is recommended to maintain the 3D cell cultures for 3-12 days according to the parameters under investigation. For 3D PEC acini it is recommended to analyse the cultures after 6 days, and for 3D PTC spheroids analysis is recommended after 3 days of culture in the first instance.
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Simple Overview of the Protocol with Critical Steps and Timings Indicated. The flow diagram depicts how to prepare and stiffen the reconstituted basement membrane (rBM) with glycolaldehyde (Maillard reaction) with critical steps and timings indicated. Points where the protocol can be stopped, and rBM gels stored, are also indicated. rBM, reconstituted basement membrane; GLA, glycolaldehyde; GEE, glycine ethyl ester; O.N., overnight; PBS, phosphate buffered saline; R.T., room temperature. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

The basement membrane (BM) is a sheet of specialized extracellular matrix (ECM) that maintains stable tissue borders by separating layers of epithelial cells from the stroma1. Covalent crosslinking between adjacent triple helices of collagen IV in the BM stabilizes their lateral association by establishing an irregular network of super-twisted helices2. These collagen IV lattices act as a scaffold for its interaction with laminin and other BM components1. The structural arrangement of the BM provides it with the mechanical strength and rigidity necessary for the normal development of glandular epithelia3. 
During aging and disease the BM progressively thickens and stiffens3,4. For example, a 3-fold increase in the elastic modulus (E) of the ocular BM occurs between the ages of 50 and 80 in the normal population, and this stiffening is further exacerbated in metabolic disorders like diabetes5. The structural and biomechanical changes in the BM that result in its increased stiffness occur when its ECM components, collagen IV and laminin, become non-enzymatically crosslinked following their exposure to advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs).
The purpose of the method described here was to establish a model for the investigation of how BM stiffness, due to AGE exposure, promotes prostate epithelial cell (PEC) and prostate tumour cell (PTC) invasiveness in the context of the switch to metastatic prostate cancer (PCa). To do this a previous method used for generating 3D glandular acini from mammary epithelial cells (MECs) in reconstituted rBM gels6 was adapted to include an additional step where the rBM gels are pre-treated with glycolaldehyde (GLA). Several techniques for assessing GLA induced crosslinking and stiffening of pre-treated rBM gels are described, including photometric analysis, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE), confocal microscopy and rheometric analysis. The prostate cell types selected for culture on the pre-stiffened rBM include: RWPE-1, PECs derived from a normal prostate gland7; BPH-1, PECs derived from a prostate gland affected by BPH8; and PC3, metastatic PTCs derived from a secondary tumor located in the vertebral bone of a prostate cancer (PCa) patient9. 
In addition to advancing the study of prostate gland pathology, the protocol for stiffening of rBM gels by their treatment with GLA can be adapted to investigate how BM stiffness contributes to other age-related pathologies and metabolic disorders. For example, the model can be directly applied to investigate how metastatic cancer is induced by BM stiffness in organs such as the breast, colon, ovary and pancreas by the incorporation of appropriate cell types. Furthermore, the protocol can be adapted to investigate how stiff BM promotes biomechanical mechanisms of disease progression in diabetes-related microvascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:628px;">I - Material for monolayer culture</td>
			<td style="width:265px;"></td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td style="width:401px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BPH-1</td>
			<td>CaP Cell Line Database</td>
			<td>PCaCL-132</td>
			<td>Contact: simon.hayward@mcmail.vanderbilt.edu</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Complete keratinocyte serum-free media&#160;</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>17005-075</td>
			<td>Do not warm at 37 &#186;C before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fetal calf serum&#160;</td>
			<td>First Link UK Ltd</td>
			<td>02-00-850</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PC3&#160;</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>CRL-1435</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15070-063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Phosphate Buffer Saline (Dulbecco A) tablets</td>
			<td>Oxoid</td>
			<td>BR0014G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RPMI 1640 medium&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R5886</td>
			<td>warm in 37 &#186;C water bath before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RWPE-1&#160;</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>CRL-11609</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trypsin-EDTA solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T4049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">II - Material for 3D culture</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Acetonitrile</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>271004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Aminoguanidine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>396494</td>
			<td>Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Chamber slides, 8-well&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific Nunc Lab-Tek</td>
			<td>TKT-210-816M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Culture Matrix reconstituted basement membrane (rBM) reduced growth factor extract&#160;</td>
			<td>AMS Biotechnology</td>
			<td>3445-005-01</td>
			<td>Store Basement membrane (BM) at -80 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cyanogen bromide&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C91492</td>
			<td>Toxic by contact skin and inhalation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Formic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>695076</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glycine ethyl ester hydrochloride (GEE)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>50060</td>
			<td>Irritating to eyes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Glycolaldehyde dimer (GLA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G6805</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium cyanoborohydride&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>71435</td>
			<td>Highly flammable; Toxic by contact skin and inhalation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Syringe filter 0.22 microns</td>
			<td>Appleton Woods</td>
			<td>BC680</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">III - Material to quantify Maillard reaction</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">4&#8217;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)</td>
			<td>ThemoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D3571</td>
			<td>light sensitive and store at -20 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cloning cylinders</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Goat anti-mouse IgG (H+L) Alexa Fluor 488 conjugate</td>
			<td>ThemoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A-11001</td>
			<td>light sensitive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L) Alexa Fluor 488 conjugate</td>
			<td>ThemoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A-11034</td>
			<td>light sensitive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Goat serum</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab7481</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vectashield mounting media&#160;</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>H-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse anti-pentosidine clone PEN-12 mAb</td>
			<td>TransGenic Inc</td>
			<td>KH012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Paraformaldehyde (PFA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F8775</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rabbit anti-human collagen IV polyclonal antibody&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Acris Antibodies</td>
			<td>R1041</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rabbit anti-laminin A/C pAb</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc</td>
			<td>sc-7292</td>
			<td>Store at -20 &#186;C in aliquots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polyethylene glycol tert-octylphenyl ether (Triton-X100)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T9284</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Polyethylene glycol sorbitan monolaurate (Tween-20)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dialysis cassette Slide-A-Lyzer</td>
			<td>ThemoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>66333</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IV - Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ARG2 controlled strain rotational rheometer</td>
			<td>T.A. Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Axiovert S100 (20x magnification) microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CO2 controlled humidified incubation chamber for Zeiss Axio S100 microscope</td>
			<td>Solent Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Confocal Axiovert 200M (40x, 63x magnification) microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Olympus LH50A microscope fitted with a digital camera using phase-contrast&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PHERAstar Plus plate reader spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>BMG Labtech</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">V - Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Image J 1.47v</td>
			<td>National Institute of Health, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MetaXpress</td>
			<td>Molecular Divices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

how to study basement membrane stiffness as a biophysical trigger in prostate cancer and other age-related pathologies or metabolic diseases

Here we describe a protocol that can be used to study the biophysical microenvironment related to increased thickness and stiffness of the basement membrane (BM) during age-related pathologies and metabolic disorders (e.g. cancer, diabetes, microvascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy). The premise of the model is non-enzymatic crosslinking of reconstituted BM (rBM) matrix by treatment with glycolaldehyde (GLA) to promote advanced glycation endproduct (AGE) generation via the Maillard reaction. Examples of laboratory techniques that can be used to confirm AGE generation, non-enzymatic crosslinking and increased stiffness in GLA treated rBM are outlined. These include preparation of native rBM (treated with phosphate-buffered saline, PBS) and stiff rBM (treated with GLA) for determination of: its AGE content by photometric analysis and immunofluorescent microscopy, its non-enzymatic crosslinking by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE) as well as confocal microscopy, and its increased stiffness using rheometry. The procedure described here can be used to increase the rigidity (elastic moduli, E) of rBM up to 3.2-fold, consistent with measurements made in healthy versus diseased human prostate tissue. To recreate the biophysical microenvironment associated with the aging and diseased prostate gland three prostate cell types were introduced on to native rBM and stiff rBM: RWPE-1, prostate epithelial cells (PECs) derived from a normal prostate gland; BPH-1, PECs derived from a prostate gland affected by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH); and PC3, metastatic cells derived from a secondary bone tumor originating from prostate cancer. Multiple parameters can be measured, including the size, shape and invasive characteristics of the 3D glandular acini formed by RWPE-1 and BPH-1 on native versus stiff rBM, and average cell length, migratory velocity and persistence of cell movement of 3D spheroids formed by PC3 cells under the same conditions. Cell signaling pathways and the subcellular localization of proteins can also be assessed.

3D Prostate Acini Cultured on Stiff rBM
After 6 days in culture, PECs derived from normal prostate tissue (RWPE-1) (Figure 1A) and BPH tissue (BPH-1) (Figure 1B) form acini on native (PBS treated) rBM that are organized into uniform spheroids of epithelial cells. These acini also have the characteristics of highly organized PECs with apical-to-basal polarity and a visible luminal space13,20.
The acini formed by PECs derived from normal prostate tissue (RWPE-1) (Figure 1A) and BPH tissue (BPH-1) (Figure 1B) on stiffened (AGE-rich) rBM (treated with GLA) have a disrupted architecture (shifting from spheroidal to polygonal in shape and cells protruding/migrating from the acini into the AGE-rich rBM) (Figure 1A). These acini are also characterized by highly disorganized PECs that have lost their apical-to-basal polarity with a small or non-existent luminal space13.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Prostate Epithelial Cells Grown as 3D Glandular Acini on Native and Stiff Reconstituted Basement Membrane (rBM). (A) Brightfield images of RWPE-1 cells grown for 12 hr up to 6 days on rBM gels treated with PBS (native) or 50 mM glycolaldehyde for 14 hr (AGE-rich; stiff); Scale bar = 50 &#181;m. (B) BPH-1 cells, grown as described in panel A; Scale bars = 50 &#181;m; data is representative of 3 independent experiments. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Table 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230table1.jpg" /> 
Table 1: Characteristics of Prostate Epithelial RWPE-1 acini Grown on Native, Semi-Stiff and Stiff Reconstituted Basement Membrane (rBM). RWPE-1 acini were grown on rBM pre-treated with PBS for 14 hr (native), glycolaldehyde (GLA) for 6 hr (semi-stiff) or GLA for 14 hr (stiff). For acinar shape, the percentage (%) &#177; standard deviation (SD) of round, semi-polygonal and polygonal acini were calculated from 5 independent experiments (50 acini quantified per condition). Relative acinar size was calculated (native rBM = 100 %) from 3 independent experiments. For invasiveness, % &#177; SD acini with one or more protruding cells were calculated from 3 independent experiments. Fold change is calculated by dividing the average value obtained under semi-stiff or stiff conditions by the corresponding value for native conditions. P values calculated using Student&#39;s t-test (&#945; = 0.05).
AGE dependent increased rBM stiffness promotes PC3 prostate tumor cell migration
PC3 cells grown on native rBM migrate by maintaining continuous cell-cell contact, whereas PC3 cells grown on AGE-rich (stiff) rBM move independently from each other (Figure 2A). After 72 hr in culture PC3 cells form foci (spheroids) on native (PBS treated) rBM, whereas PC3 cells on stiff (AGE-rich) rBM do not from spheroids and migrate independently (Figure 2B). PC3 cells on stiff (AGE-rich) rBM are more elongated than PC3 cells grown on native rBM (Figure 2C). PC3 cells on stiff rBM migrate faster than PC3 cells grown on native rBM (Figure 2D). PC3 cells on stiff rBM display a decrease in persistence compared to PC3 cells grown on native rBM (Figure 2E).
<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Prostate Tumor Cell Migration on Native and Stiff Reconstituted Basement Membrane (rBM). (A) Brightfield images of PC3 cells grown on rBM gels treated with PBS (native) or 50 mM glycolaldehyde for 14 hr (AGE-rich, stiff). Cells were imaged using a brightfield microscope (10X objective) and an acquisition rate of 1 image per hr for 12 hr followed by cell tracking to generate trajectories. Images shown correspond to the time points after 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 hr. Trajectories of single cells are shown for the 12 hr time point. Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. (B) PC3 cells cultured on native or stiff rBM for 72 hr, and imaged as described in panel (A). Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. Detail shows selected area at 2X magnification. (C) Mean &#177; S.D. cell length (&#181;m); significant difference between native rBM and stiff rBM (p = 1.2 x 10-23). (D) Mean &#177; S.D. velocity (&#181;m/hr) calculated from cell trajectories; significant difference between native rBM and stiff rBM (p = 0.004). (E) Mean &#177; S.D. persistence of cell movement (ratio D/T, where D = distance from start to end of cell trajectory, T = total length of cell trajectory); significant difference between native rBM and stiff rBM (p = 0.0007). For panels C-E &#62;10 cells were analyzed, data is representative of 3 independent experiments. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54230/54230fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about How to Study Basement Membrane Stiffness as a Biophysical Trigger in Prostate Cancer and Other Age-related Pathologies or Metabolic Diseases at JoVE.com

How to Study Basement Membrane Stiffness as a Biophysical Trigger in Prostate Cancer and Other Age-related Pathologies or Metabolic Diseases

Here we explain a protocol for modelling the biophysical microenvironment where crosslinking and increased stiffness of the basement membrane (BM) induced by advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) has pathological relevance.

Here we describe a protocol that can be used to study the biophysical microenvironment related to increased thickness and stiffness of the basement ...

how-to-study-basement-membrane-stiffness-as-biophysical-trigger

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

9.6K Views.  Universidad de la República (UDELAR). Here we explain a protocol for modelling the biophysical microenvironment where crosslinking and increased stiffness of the basement membrane (BM) induced by advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) has pathological relevance.

Video: How to Study Basement Membrane Stiffness as a Biophysical Trigger in Prostate Cancer and Other Age-related Pathologies or Metabolic Diseases

Coculture Assays to Study Macrophage and Microglia Stimulation of Glioblastoma Invasion

Glioblastoma multiforme (grade IV glioma) is a very aggressive human cancer with a median survival of 1 year post diagnosis. Despite the increased understanding of the molecular events that give rise to glioblastomas, this cancer still remains highly refractory to conventional treatment. Surgical resection of high grade brain tumors is rarely complete due to the highly infiltrative nature of glioblastoma cells. Therapeutic approaches which attenuate glioblastoma cell invasion therefore is an attractive option. Our laboratory and others have shown that tumor associated macrophages and microglia (resident brain macrophages) strongly stimulate glioblastoma invasion. The protocol described in this paper is used to model glioblastoma-macrophage/microglia interaction using in vitro culture assays. This approach can greatly facilitate the development and/or discovery of drugs that disrupt the communication with the macrophages that enables this malignant behavior. We have established two robust coculture invasion assays where microglia/macrophages stimulate glioma cell invasion by 5 - 10 fold. Glioblastoma cells labelled with a fluorescent marker or constitutively expressing a fluorescent protein are plated without and with macrophages/microglia on matrix-coated polycarbonate chamber inserts or embedded in a three dimensional matrix. Cell invasion is assessed by using fluorescent microscopy to image and count only invasive cells on the underside of the filter. Using these assays, several pharmacological inhibitors (JNJ-28312141, PLX3397, Gefitinib, and Semapimod), have been identified which block macrophage/microglia stimulated glioblastoma invasion.

Understanding the malignant behavior of cancer requires creating accurate models of how tumor cells interact with components of the tumor microenvironment, such as macrophages. Here we describe two methods to study glioblastoma cell interaction with tumor associated macrophages and microglia where the effect on glioblastoma invasion is assessed.

Glioblastoma multiforme (grade IV glioma) is a very aggressive human cancer with a median survival of 1 year post diagnosis. Despite the increased ...

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the context of a whole organism. Sophisticated techniques to generate genetic mosaics facilitate induction of visually marked, genetically defined clones surrounded by normal tissue. The clones can be analyzed through diverse molecular, cellular and omics approaches. This study describes how to generate fluorescently labeled clonal tumors of varying malignancy in the eye/antennal imaginal discs (EAD) of Drosophila larvae using the Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) technique. It describes procedures how to recover the mosaic EAD and brain from the larvae and how to process them for simultaneous imaging of fluorescent transgenic reporters and antibody staining. To facilitate molecular characterization of the mosaic tissue, we describe a protocol for isolation of total RNA from the EAD. The dissection procedure is suitable to recover EAD and brains from any larval stage. The fixation and staining protocol for imaginal discs works with a number of transgenic reporters and antibodies that recognize Drosophila proteins. The protocol for RNA isolation can be applied to various larval organs, whole larvae, and adult flies. Total RNA can be used for profiling of gene expression changes using candidate or genome-wide approaches. Finally, we detail a method for quantifying invasiveness of the clonal tumors. Although this method has limited use, its underlying concept is broadly applicable to other quantitative studies where cognitive bias must be avoided.

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

This protocol demonstrates how to generate fluorescently marked, genetically defined clonal tumors in the Drosophila eye/antennal imaginal discs (EAD). It describes how to dissect the EAD and brain from the third instar larvae and how to process them to visualize and quantify gene expression changes and tumor invasiveness.

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the ...

Hyperpolarized 13C Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Imaging

In the past decades, new methods for tumor staging, restaging, treatment response monitoring, and recurrence detection of a variety of cancers have emerged in conjunction with the state-of-the-art positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]-FDG PET). 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (13CMRSI) is a minimally invasive imaging method that enables the monitoring of metabolism in vivo and in real time. As with any other method based on 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), it faces the challenge of low thermal polarization and a subsequent low signal-to-noise ratio due to the relatively low gyromagnetic ratio of 13C and its low natural abundance in biological samples. By overcoming these limitations, dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) with subsequent sample dissolution has recently enabled commonly used NMR and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems to measure, study, and image key metabolic pathways in various biological systems. A particularly interesting and promising molecule used in 13CMRSI is [1-13C]pyruvate, which, in the last ten years, has been widely used for in vitro, preclinical, and, more recently, clinical studies to investigate the cellular energy metabolism in cancer and other diseases. In this article, we outline the technique of dissolution DNP using a 3.35 T preclinical DNP hyperpolarizer and demonstrate its usage in in vitro studies. A similar protocol for hyperpolarization may be applied for the most part in in vivo studies as well. To do so, we used lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and catalyzed the metabolic reaction of [1-13C]pyruvate to [1-13C]lactate in a prostate carcinoma cell line, PC3, in vitro using 13CMRSI.

Hyperpolarized 13C Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Imaging

Dynamic nuclear polarization with subsequent sample dissolution has enabled real-time studies of metabolism in biological systems. Hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate was used to study lactate dehydrogenase activity in a prostate carcinoma cell line in vitro.

In the past decades, new methods for tumor staging, restaging, treatment response monitoring, and recurrence detection of a variety of cancers have ...

The Colon-26 Carcinoma Tumor-bearing Mouse as a Model for the Study of Cancer Cachexia

Cancer cachexia is the progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and adipose tissue, negative nitrogen balance, anorexia, fatigue, inflammation, and activation of lipolysis and proteolysis systems. Cancer patients with cachexia benefit less from anti-neoplastic therapies and show increased mortality1. Several animal models have been established in order to investigate the molecular causes responsible for body and muscle wasting as a result of tumor growth. Here, we describe methodologies pertaining to a well-characterized model of cancer cachexia: mice bearing the C26 carcinoma2-4. Although this model is heavily used in cachexia research, different approaches make reproducibility a potential issue. The growth of the C26 tumor causes a marked and progressive loss of body and skeletal muscle mass, accompanied by reduced muscle cross-sectional area and muscle strength3-5. Adipose tissue is also lost. Wasting is coincident with elevated circulating levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, particularly Interleukin-6 (IL-6)3, which is directly, although not entirely, responsible for C26 cachexia. It is well-accepted that a primary mechanism by which the C26 tumor induces muscle tissue depletion is the activation of skeletal muscle proteolytic systems. Thus, expression of muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases, such as atrogin-1/MAFbx and MuRF-1, represent an accepted method for the evaluation of the ongoing muscle catabolism2. Here, we present how to execute this model in a reproducible manner and how to excise several tissues and organs (the liver, spleen, and heart), as well as fat and skeletal muscles (the gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, and quadriceps). We also provide useful protocols that describe how to perform muscle freezing, sectioning, and fiber size quantification.

Mice bearing the Colon-26 (C26) carcinoma represent a classical model of cancer cachexia. Progressive muscle wasting occurs in association with tumor growth, over-expression of muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases, and reductions in muscle cross-sectional area. Fat loss is also observed. Cachexia is studied in a time-dependent manner with increasing severity of wasting.

Cancer cachexia is the progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and adipose tissue, negative nitrogen balance, anorexia, fatigue, inflammation, and ...

Detection of Mitochondria Membrane Potential to Study CLIC4 Knockdown-induced HN4 Cell Apoptosis In Vitro

Depletion of the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP, &#916;&#936;m) is considered the earliest event in the apoptotic cascade. It even occurs ahead of nuclear apoptotic characteristics, including chromatin condensation and DNA breakage. Once the MMP collapses, cell apoptosis will initiate irreversibly. A series of lipophilic cationic dyes can pass through the cell membrane and aggregate inside the matrix of mitochondrion, and serve as fluorescence marker to evaluate MMP change. As one of the six members of the Cl- intracellular channel (CLIC) family, CLIC4 participates in the cell apoptotic process mainly through the mitochondrial pathway. Here we describe a detailed protocol to measure MMP via monitoring the fluorescence fluctuation of Rhodamine 123 (Rh123), through which we study apoptosis induced by CLIC4 knockdown. We discuss the advantages and limitations of the application of confocal laser scanning and normal fluorescence microscope in detail, and also compare it with other methods.

Detection of Mitochondria Membrane Potential to Study CLIC4 Knockdown-induced HN4 Cell Apoptosis In Vitro

Here we present a detailed protocol for the application of rhodamine 123 to identify the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and study CLIC4 knockdown-induced HN4 cell apoptosis in vitro. Under common fluorescence microscope and confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope, the real-time change of the MMP was recorded.

Depletion of the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP, &#916;&#936;m) is considered the earliest event in the apoptotic cascade. It even occurs ahead of ...

Phosphopeptide Enrichment Coupled with Label-free Quantitative Mass Spectrometry to Investigate the Phosphoproteome in Prostate Cancer

Phosphoproteomics involves the large-scale study of phosphorylated proteins. Protein phosphorylation is a critical step in many signal transduction pathways and is tightly regulated by kinases and phosphatases. Therefore, characterizing the phosphoproteome may provide insights into identifying novel targets and biomarkers for oncologic therapy. Mass spectrometry provides a way to globally detect and quantify thousands of unique phosphorylation events. However, phosphopeptides are much less abundant than non-phosphopeptides, making biochemical analysis more challenging. To overcome this limitation, methods to enrich phosphopeptides prior to the mass spectrometry analysis are required. We describe a procedure to extract and digest proteins from tissue to yield peptides, followed by an enrichment for phosphotyrosine (pY) and phosphoserine/threonine (pST) peptides using an antibody-based and/or titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based enrichment method. After the sample preparation and mass spectrometry, we subsequently identify and quantify phosphopeptides using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and analysis software.

This protocol describes a procedure to extract and enrich phosphopeptides from prostate cancer cell lines or tissues for an analysis of the phosphoproteome via mass spectrometry-based proteomics.

Phosphoproteomics involves the large-scale study of phosphorylated proteins. Protein phosphorylation is a critical step in many signal transduction ...

Yeast As a Chassis for Developing Functional Assays to Study Human P53

The finding that the well-known mammalian P53 protein can act as a transcription factor (TF) in the yeast S. cerevisiae has allowed for the development of different functional assays to study the impacts of 1) binding site [i.e., response element (RE)] sequence variants on P53 transactivation specificity or 2) TP53 mutations, co-expressed cofactors, or small molecules on P53 transactivation activity. Different basic and translational research applications have been developed. Experimentally, these approaches exploit two major advantages of the yeast model. On one hand, the ease of genome editing enables quick construction of qualitative or quantitative reporter systems by exploiting isogenic strains that differ only at the level of a specific P53-RE to investigate sequence-specificity of P53-dependent transactivation. On the other hand, the availability of regulated systems for ectopic P53 expression allows the evaluation of transactivation in a wide range of protein expression. Reviewed in this report are extensively used systems that are based on color reporter genes, luciferase, and the growth of yeast to illustrate their main methodological steps and to critically assess their predictive power. Moreover, the extreme versatility of these approaches can be easily exploited to study different TFs including P63 and P73, which are other members of TP53 gene family.

Presented here are four protocols to construct and exploit yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae reporter strains to study human P53 transactivation potential, impacts of its various cancer-associated mutations, co-expressed interacting proteins, and the effects of specific small molecules.

The finding that the well-known mammalian P53 protein can act as a transcription factor (TF) in the yeast S. cerevisiae has allowed for the development of ...

Important Endpoints and Proliferative Markers to Assess Small Intestinal Injury and Adaptation using a Mouse Model of Chemotherapy-Induced Mucositis

Intestinal adaptation is the natural compensatory mechanism that occurs when the bowel is lost due to trauma. The adaptive responses, such as crypt cell proliferation and increased nutrient absorption, are critical in recovery, yet poorly understood. Understanding the molecular mechanism behind the adaptive responses is crucial to facilitate the identification of nutrients or drugs to enhance adaptation. Different approaches and models have been described throughout the literature, but a detailed descriptive way to essentially perform the procedures is needed to obtain reproducible data. Here, we describe a method to estimate important endpoints and proliferative markers of small intestinal injury and compensatory hyperproliferation using a model of chemotherapy-induced mucositis in mice. We demonstrate the detection of proliferating cells using a cell cycle specific marker, as well as using small intestinal weight, crypt depth, and villus height as endpoints. Some of the critical steps within the described method are the removal and weighing of the small intestine and the rather complex software system suggested for the measurement of this technique. These methods have the advantages that they are not time-consuming, and that they are cost-effective and easy to carry out and measure.

Here, we present a protocol to establish important endpoints and proliferative markers of small intestinal injury and compensatory hyperproliferation using a model of chemotherapy-induced mucositis. We demonstrate the detection of proliferating cells using a cell cycle specific marker and using small intestinal weight, crypt depth, and villus height as endpoints.

Intestinal adaptation is the natural compensatory mechanism that occurs when the bowel is lost due to trauma. The adaptive responses, such as crypt cell ...

In Vitro Assay to Study Tumor-macrophage Interaction

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a malignant brain tumor with no cure, has up to a half the tumor mass TAMs. TAMs can be pro-tumoral or anti-tumoral, depending on the activation of specific genes in the cells. Genetic mutations in the tumors, through regulating cytokine expression, can affect recruitment of TAMs to the tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe a quantitative cell-based assay to assess macrophage recruitment by the conditioned medium from the tumor cells. This assay uses the human macrophage cell line MV-4-11 to study macrophage attraction by the conditioned medium from glioblastoma, allowing for high reproducibility and low variability. Data generated with this assay can contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between the tumor and the tumor microenvironment. Similar assay can be used to assess interaction between the tumor cells and other immune cells, including T cells and natural killer (NK) cells.

This article represents a useful in vitro assay to evaluate the capability of conditioned medium from tumor cells to attract macrophages.

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a ...

Prostate Organoid Cultures as Tools to Translate Genotypes and Mutational Profiles to Pharmacological Responses

Presented here is a protocol to study pharmacodynamics, stem cell potential, and cancer differentiation in prostate epithelial organoids. Prostate organoids are androgen responsive, three-dimensional (3D) cultures grown in a defined medium that resembles the prostatic epithelium. Prostate organoids can be established from wild-type and genetically engineered mouse models, benign human tissue, and advanced prostate cancer. Importantly, patient derived organoids closely resemble tumors in genetics and in vivo tumor biology. Moreover, organoids can be genetically manipulated using CRISPR/Cas9 and shRNA systems. These controlled genetics make the organoid culture attractive as a platform for rapidly testing the effects of genotypes and mutational profiles on pharmacological responses. However, experimental protocols must be specifically adapted to the 3D nature of organoid cultures to obtain reproducible results. Described here are detailed protocols for performing seeding assays to determine organoid formation capacity. Subsequently, this report shows how to perform drug treatments and analyze pharmacological response via viability measurements, protein isolation, and RNA isolation. Finally, the protocol describes how to prepare organoids for xenografting and subsequent in vivo growth assays using subcutaneous grafting. These protocols yield highly reproducible data and are widely applicable to 3D culture systems.

Presented here is a protocol to study pharmacological responses in prostate epithelial organoids. Organoids closely resemble in vivo biology and recapitulate patient genetics, making them attractive model systems. Prostate organoids can be established from wildtype prostates, genetically engineered mouse models, benign human tissue, and advanced prostate cancer.

How to Study Basement Membrane Stiffness as a Biophysical Trigger in Prostate Cancer and Other Age-related Pathologies or Metabolic Diseases

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