Name: real-time electrophysiology: using closed-loop protocols to probe neuronal dynamics and beyond
Uploaded: 2015-06-24T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-time Electrophysiology: Using Closed-loop Protocols to Probe Neuronal Dynamics and Beyond at JoVE.com

Financial support from the Flanders Research Foundation FWO (contract n. 12C9112N to DL), the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission (Marie Curie Network &#8220;C7&#8221;, contract n. 238214; ICT Future Emerging Technology &#8220;ENLIGHTENMENT&#8221; project, contract n. 306502), the Interuniversity Attraction Poles Program initiated by the Belgian Science Policy Office (contract n. IUAP-VII/20), and the University of Antwerp is kindly acknowledged.

The protocol described here complies with the recommendations and guidelines of the Ethics Committee of the Department of Biomedical Sciences of the University of Antwerp. This protocol requires the preparation of non-sentient material from the explanted brain of juvenile Wistar rats, obtained by approved humane euthanasia techniques.
1. Equipment Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Install and configure the data acquisition and stimulation system.
	<ol>
		<li>Use a personal computer (PC) equipped with a ...

<ol>
	<li>Saleem, A. B., Ayaz, A., Jeffery, K. J., Harris, K. D., Carandini, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integration+of+visual+motion+and+locomotion+in+mouse+visual+cortex.">Integration of visual motion and locomotion in mouse visual cortex.</a> Nature neuroscience. 16, 1864-1869 (2013).</li><li>Ahrens, M. B., Li, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain-wide+neuronal+dynamics+during+motor+adaptation+in+zebrafish.">Brain-wide neuronal dynamics during motor adaptation in zebrafish.</a> Nature. 485 (7399), 471-477 (2012).</li><li>Paz, J. T., Davidson, T. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Closed-loop+optogenetic+control+of+thalamus+as+a+tool+for+interrupting+seizures+after+cortical+injury.">Closed-loop optogenetic control of thalamus as a tool for interrupting seizures after cortical injury.</a> Nature neuroscience. 16 (1), 64-70 (2013).</li><li>Wallach, A., Eytan, D., Gal, A., Zrenner, C., Marom, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuronal+response+clamp.">Neuronal response clamp.</a> Frontiers in neuroengineering. 3 (April), 3 (2011).</li><li>Linaro, D., Couto, J., Giugliano, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Command-line+cellular+electrophysiology+for+conventional+and+real-time+closed-loop+experiments.">Command-line cellular electrophysiology for conventional and real-time closed-loop experiments.</a> Journal of neuroscience. 230, 5-19 (2014).</li><li>Sharp, A., O&#8217;Neil, M., Abbott, L. 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The Journal of neuroscience.</a> the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 30 (48), 16332-16342 (2010).</li><li>Wang, Y., Toledo-Rodriguez, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomical,+physiological+and+molecular+properties+of+Martinotti+cells+in+the+somatosensory+cortex+of+the+juvenile+rat.">Anatomical, physiological and molecular properties of Martinotti cells in the somatosensory cortex of the juvenile rat.</a> The Journal of physiology. 561 (Pt 1), 65-90 (2004).</li><li>Wang, Y., Gupta, A., Toledo-Rodriguez, M., Wu, C. Z., Markram, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomical,+physiological,+molecular+and+circuit+properties+of+nest+basket+cells+in+the+developing+somatosensory+cortex).">Anatomical, physiological, molecular and circuit properties of nest basket cells in the developing somatosensory cortex).</a> Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y). 12 (4), 395-410 (1991).</li><li>Brette, R., Piwkowska, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+intracellular+recordings+using+a+real-time+computational+model+of+the+electrode.">High-resolution intracellular recordings using a real-time computational model of the electrode.</a> Neuron. 59 (3), 379-391 (2008).</li><li>Rutishauser, U., Kotowicz, A., Laurent, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+closed-loop+presentation+of+sensory+stimuli+conditional+on+the+internal+brain-state+of+awake+animals.">A method for closed-loop presentation of sensory stimuli conditional on the internal brain-state of awake animals.</a> Journal of neuroscience. 215 (1), 139-155 (2013).</li><li>Margrie, T., Brecht, M., Sakmann, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo,+low-resistance,+whole-cell+recordings+from+neurons+in+the+anaesthetized+and+awake+mammalian+brain.">In vivo, low-resistance, whole-cell recordings from neurons in the anaesthetized and awake mammalian brain.</a> Pflugers Archiv European Journal of Physiology. 444 (4), 491-498 (2002).</li><li>Graham, L., Schramm, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+Vivo+Dynamic-Clamp+Manipulation+of+Extrinsic+and+Intrinsic+Conductances:+Functional+Roles+of+Shunting+Inhibition+and+I+BK+in+Rat+and+Cat+Cortex.">In Vivo Dynamic-Clamp Manipulation of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Conductances: Functional Roles of Shunting Inhibition and I BK in Rat and Cat Cortex.</a> Dynamic Clamp: From Principles to Applications. , (2008).</li><li>Sakmann, B., Neher, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Single-channel recording. , (1995).</li><li>Molleman, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Patch Clamping. , (2002).</li><li>Davie, J. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reliability+of+spike+timing+in+neocortical+neurons.">Reliability of spike timing in neocortical neurons.</a> Science. 268 (5216), 1503-1506 (1995).</li><li>Buzs&#225;ki, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Action+potential+threshold+of+hippocampal+pyramidal+cells+in+vivo+is+increased+by+recent+spiking+activity.">Action potential threshold of hippocampal pyramidal cells in vivo is increased by recent spiking activity.</a> Neuroscience. 105 (1), 121-130 (2001).</li><li>Koch, C., Segev, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Methods in Neuronal Modeling: From Synapses to Networks. , (1988).</li><li>Silberberg, G., Markram, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disynaptic+inhibition+between+neocortical+pyramidal+cells+mediated+by+Martinotti+cells.">Disynaptic inhibition between neocortical pyramidal cells mediated by Martinotti cells.</a> Neuron. 53 (5), 735-746 (2007).</li><li>Berger, T. K., Silberberg, G., Perin, R., Markram, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brief+bursts+self-inhibit+and+correlate+the+pyramidal+network.">Brief bursts self-inhibit and correlate the pyramidal network.</a> PLoS biology. 8 (9), (2010).</li><li>Tsodyks, M., Pawelzik, K., Markram, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+networks+with+dynamic+synapses.">Neural networks with dynamic synapses.</a> Neural computation. 10 (4), 821-835 (1998).</li><li>Kapfer, C., Glickfeld, L. 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In this text a full protocol for the implementation of real-time, closed-loop single cell electrophysiological experiments was described, using the patch clamp technique and a recently developed software toolbox called LCG. To optimize the quality of the recordings it is crucial that the recording setup be properly grounded, shielded and vibration free: this ensures stable and lasting whole-cell access to the cell, which, together with the possibility of automating entire sections of the stimulation protocols, allows for...

In recent years, cellular electrophysiology has evolved from the traditional open-loop paradigm employed in voltage and current clamp experiments to modern closed-loop protocols. The best known closed-loop technique is perhaps the dynamic clamp6,7, which enabled the synthetic injection of artificial voltage-gated ion channels to determine the neuronal membrane voltage8, the in-depth study of the effects of non-deterministic flickering on ion channels on neuronal response dynamics9, as well as the recreation in vitro of realistic in vivo-like synaptic background activity10.
Other closed-loop paradigms that have been proposed include the reactive clamp11, to study in vitro the generation of self-sustained persistent activity, and the response clamp4,12, to investigate the cellular mechanisms underlying neuronal excitability.
Here we describe a powerful framework that allows applying a variety of closed-loop electrophysiological protocols in the context of whole-cell patch clamp recordings performed in acute brain slices. We show how to record somatic membrane voltage by means of patch clamp recordings in pyramidal neurons from the somatosensory cortex of juvenile rats and apply three different closed-loop protocols using LCG, a command-line-based software toolbox developed in the laboratory of Theoretical Neurobiology and Neuroengineering.
Briefly, the described protocols are, first&#160;the automated injection of a series of current clamp stimulus waveforms, relevant for the characterization of a large set of active and passive membrane properties. These have been suggested to capture the electrophysiological phenotype of a cell in terms of its response properties to a stereotyped series of stimulus waveforms. Known as the e-code of a cell (e.g., see&#160;13,14), such a collection of electrical responses is used by several laboratories to objectively classify neurons on the basis of their electrical properties. This includes the analysis of the stationary input-output transfer relationship (f-I curve), by an innovative technique that involves the closed-loop, real-time control of the rate of firing by means of a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller, second the recreation of realistic in vivo-like&#160;background synaptic activity in in vitro preparations10 and , third the artificial connection in real-time of two simultaneously recorded pyramidal neurons by means of a virtual GABAergic interneuron, which is simulated by the computer.
Additionally, LCG implements the technique known as Active Electrode Compensation (AEC)15, which allows implementing dynamic clamp protocols using a single electrode. This allows compensating undesired effects (artifacts) of the recording electrode that arise when it is used for delivering intracellular stimuli. The method is based on a non-parametric estimate of the equivalent electrical properties of the recording circuit.
The techniques and experimental protocols described in this paper can be readily applied in conventional open-loop voltage and current clamp experiments and can be extended to other preparations, such as extracellular4,16 or intracellular recordings in vivo17,18. The careful assembly of the setup for whole cell patch clamp electrophysiology is a very important step for stable, high quality recordings. In the following we assume that such an experimental setup is already available to the experimenter, and focus our attention on describing the usage of LCG. The reader is pointed to 19&#8211;22 for additional tips about optimization and debugging.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue slicer</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>VT-1000S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter</td>
			<td>P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipettes</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>1B150F-4</td>
			<td>1.5/0.84 mm OD/ID, with filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibration isolation table</td>
			<td>TMC</td>
			<td>20 Series</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMLFS</td>
			<td>40X Immersion Objective</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manipulators</td>
			<td>Scientifica</td>
			<td>PatchStar</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amplifiers</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>MultiClamp 700B</td>
			<td>Computer controlled</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data acquisition card</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>PCI-6229</td>
			<td>Supported by Comedi Linux Drivers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Desktop computer</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>Optiplex 7010 Tower</td>
			<td>OS: real-time Linux</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oscilloscopes</td>
			<td>Tektronix</td>
			<td>TDS-1002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perfusion Pump</td>
			<td>Gibson</td>
			<td>MINIPULS3</td>
			<td>Used with R4 Pump head (F117606)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature controller</td>
			<td>Multichannel Systems</td>
			<td>TC02</td>
			<td>PH01 Perfusion Cannula</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manometer</td>
			<td>Testo</td>
			<td>510</td>
			<td>Optional</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator</td>
			<td>Memmert</td>
			<td>WB14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>71376</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9541</td>
			<td>ACSF, ICS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S3139</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S6014</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C1016</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G7528</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K-Gluconate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G4500</td>
			<td>ICS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td>ICS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mg-ATP</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A9187</td>
			<td>ICS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2-GTP</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>51120</td>
			<td>ICS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2-Phosphocreatine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7936</td>
			<td>ICS</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

real-time electrophysiology: using closed-loop protocols to probe neuronal dynamics and beyond

Experimental neuroscience is witnessing an increased interest in the development and application of novel and often complex, closed-loop protocols, where the stimulus applied depends in real-time on the response of the system. Recent applications range from the implementation of virtual reality systems for studying motor responses both in mice1 and in zebrafish2, to control of seizures following cortical stroke using optogenetics3. A key advantage of closed-loop techniques resides in the capability of probing higher dimensional properties that are not directly accessible or that depend on multiple variables, such as neuronal excitability4 and reliability, while at the same time maximizing the experimental throughput. In this contribution and in the context of cellular electrophysiology, we describe how to apply a variety of closed-loop protocols to the study of the response properties of pyramidal cortical neurons, recorded intracellularly with the patch clamp technique in acute brain slices from the somatosensory cortex of juvenile rats. As no commercially available or open source software provides all the features required for efficiently performing the experiments described here, a new software toolbox called LCG5 was developed, whose modular structure maximizes reuse of computer code and facilitates the implementation of novel experimental paradigms. Stimulation waveforms are specified using a compact meta-description and full experimental protocols are described in text-based configuration files. Additionally, LCG has a command-line interface that is suited for repetition of trials and automation of experimental protocols.

In the previous sections, we have described how to use the software toolbox LCG to characterize the electrophysiological properties of L5 pyramidal cells and to recreate in vivo-like synaptic activity in a slice preparation. The use of a command-line interface and semi-automated protocol favor the reproducibility and efficiency of the experiment, which can have a large impact on the output and quality of the data produced. Additionally, since the data is saved in a consistent way, it is easy to extend the analys...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-time Electrophysiology: Using Closed-loop Protocols to Probe Neuronal Dynamics and Beyond at JoVE.com

Real-time Electrophysiology: Using Closed-loop Protocols to Probe Neuronal Dynamics and Beyond

Closed-loop protocols are becoming increasingly widespread in modern day electrophysiology. We present a simple, versatile and inexpensive way to perform complex electrophysiological protocols in cortical pyramidal neurons in vitro, using a desktop computer and a digital acquisition board.

Experimental neuroscience is witnessing an increased interest in the development and application of novel and often complex, closed-loop protocols, where ...

real-time-electrophysiology-using-closed-loop-protocols-to-probe

Research

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Neuroscience

An Experimental Platform to Study the Closed-loop Performance of Brain-machine Interfaces

The non-stationary nature and variability of neuronal signals is a fundamental problem in brain-machine interfacing. We developed a brain-machine interface to assess the robustness of different control-laws applied to a closed-loop image stabilization task. Taking advantage of the well-characterized fly visuomotor pathway we record the electrical activity from an identified, motion-sensitive neuron, H1, to control the yaw rotation of a two-wheeled robot. The robot is equipped with 2 high-speed video cameras providing visual motion input to a fly placed in front of 2 CRT computer monitors. The activity of the H1 neuron indicates the direction and relative speed of the robot's rotation. The neural activity is filtered and fed back into the steering system of the robot by means of proportional and proportional/adaptive control. Our goal is to test and optimize the performance of various control laws under closed-loop conditions for a broader application also in other brain machine interfaces.

We use a closed-loop fly-machine interface to investigate general principles in neuronal control.

The non-stationary nature and variability of neuronal signals is a fundamental problem in brain-machine interfacing. We developed a brain-machine ...

Multi-electrode Array Recordings of Neuronal Avalanches in Organotypic Cultures

The cortex is spontaneously active, even in the absence of any particular input or motor output. During development, this activity is important for the migration and differentiation of cortex cell types and the formation of neuronal connections1. In the mature animal, ongoing activity reflects the past and the present state of an animal into which sensory stimuli are seamlessly integrated to compute future actions. Thus, a clear understanding of the organization of ongoing i.e. spontaneous activity is a prerequisite to understand cortex function. 
Numerous recording techniques revealed that ongoing activity in cortex is comprised of many neurons whose individual activities transiently sum to larger events that can be detected in the local field potential (LFP) with extracellular microelectrodes, or in the electroencephalogram (EEG), the magnetoencephalogram (MEG), and the BOLD signal from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The LFP is currently the method of choice when studying neuronal population activity with high temporal and spatial resolution at the mesoscopic scale (several thousands of neurons). At the extracellular microelectrode, locally synchronized activities of spatially neighbored neurons result in rapid deflections in the LFP up to several hundreds of microvolts. When using an array of microelectrodes, the organizations of such deflections can be conveniently monitored in space and time. 
Neuronal avalanches describe the scale-invariant spatiotemporal organization of ongoing neuronal activity in the brain2,3. They are specific to the superficial layers of cortex as established in vitro4,5, in vivo in the anesthetized rat 6, and in the awake monkey7. Importantly, both theoretical and empirical studies2,8-10 suggest that neuronal avalanches indicate an exquisitely balanced critical state dynamics of cortex that optimizes information transfer and information processing.
In order to study the mechanisms of neuronal avalanche development, maintenance, and regulation, in vitro preparations are highly beneficial, as they allow for stable recordings of avalanche activity under precisely controlled conditions. The current protocol describes how to study neuronal avalanches in vitro by taking advantage of superficial layer development in organotypic cortex cultures, i.e. slice cultures, grown on planar, integrated microelectrode arrays (MEA; see also 11-14).

A robust way to study neuronal avalanches, i.e. scale-invariant spatio-temporal activity bursts, indicative of critical state dynamics in cortex. Avalanches emerge spontaneously in developing superficial layers of cultured cortex which allows for long-term measurements of the activity with planar integrated multi-electrode arrays (MEA) under precisely controlled conditions.

The cortex is spontaneously active, even in the absence of any particular input or motor output.  During development, this activity is important for the ...

Simultaneous Electroencephalography, Real-time Measurement of Lactate Concentration and Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity in the Rodent Cerebral Cortex

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body at rest1. The function of non rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS), the largest portion of sleep by time, is uncertain. However, one salient feature of NREMS is a significant reduction in the rate of cerebral glucose utilization relative to wakefulness2-4. This and other findings have led to the widely held belief that sleep serves a function related to cerebral metabolism. Yet, the mechanisms underlying the reduction in cerebral glucose metabolism during NREMS remain to be elucidated.
	One phenomenon associated with NREMS that might impact cerebral metabolic rate is the occurrence of slow waves, oscillations at frequencies less than 4 Hz, in the electroencephalogram5,6. These slow waves detected at the level of the skull or cerebral cortical surface reflect the oscillations of underlying neurons between a depolarized/up state and a hyperpolarized/down state7. During the down state, cells do not undergo action potentials for intervals of up to several hundred milliseconds. Restoration of ionic concentration gradients subsequent to action potentials represents a significant metabolic load on the cell8; absence of action potentials during down states associated with NREMS may contribute to reduced metabolism relative to wake.
	Two technical challenges had to be addressed in order for this hypothetical relationship to be tested. First, it was necessary to measure cerebral glycolytic metabolism with a temporal resolution reflective of the dynamics of the cerebral EEG (that is, over seconds rather than minutes). To do so, we measured the concentration of lactate, the product of aerobic glycolysis, and therefore a readout of the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of mice. Lactate was measured using a lactate oxidase based real time sensor embedded in the frontal cortex. The sensing mechanism consists of a platinum-iridium electrode surrounded by a layer of lactate oxidase molecules. Metabolism of lactate by lactate oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide, which produces a current in the platinum-iridium electrode. So a ramping up of cerebral glycolysis provides an increase in the concentration of substrate for lactate oxidase, which then is reflected in increased current at the sensing electrode. It was additionally necessary to measure these variables while manipulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex, in order to isolate this variable from other facets of NREMS.
	We devised an experimental system for simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity via the elecetroencephalogram, measurement of glycolytic flux via a lactate biosensor, and manipulation of cerebral cortical neuronal activity via optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons. We have utilized this system to document the relationship between sleep-related electroencephalographic waveforms and the moment-to-moment dynamics of lactate concentration in the cerebral cortex. The protocol may be useful for any individual interested in studying, in freely behaving rodents, the relationship between neuronal activity measured at the electroencephalographic level and cellular energetics within the brain.

A procedure is described for manipulating the activity of cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons optogenetically while the electroencephalogram, electromyogram, and cerebral lactate concentration are monitored. Experimental recordings are performed on cable-tethered mice while they undergo spontaneous sleep/wake cycles. Optogenetic equipment is assembled in our laboratory; recording equipment is commercially available.

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body  by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body  at rest1. The ...

Real-Time Impedance-based Cell Analyzer as a Tool to Delineate Molecular Pathways Involved in Neurotoxicity and Neuroprotection in a Neuronal Cell Line

Many brain-related disorders have neuronal cell death involved in their pathophysiology. Improved in vitro models to study neuroprotective or neurotoxic effects of drugs and downstream pathways involved would help gain insight into the molecular mechanisms of neuroprotection/neurotoxicity and could potentially facilitate drug development. However, many existing in vitro toxicity assays have major limitations &#8211; most assess neurotoxicity and neuroprotection at a single time point, not allowing to observe the time-course and kinetics of the effect. Furthermore, the opportunity to collect information about downstream signaling pathways involved in neuroprotection in real-time would be of great importance. In the current protocol we describe the use of a real-time impedance-based cell analyzer to determine neuroprotective effects of serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor agonists in a neuronal cell line under label-free and real-time conditions using impedance measurements. Furthermore, we demonstrate that inhibitors of second messenger pathways can be used to delineate downstream molecules involved in the neuroprotective effect. We also describe the utility of this technique to determine whether an effect on cell proliferation contributes to an observed neuroprotective effect. The system utilizes special microelectronic plates referred to as E-Plates which contain alternating gold microelectrode arrays on the bottom surface of the wells, serving as cell sensors. The impedance readout is modified by the number of adherent cells, cell viability, morphology, and adhesion. A dimensionless parameter called Cell Index is derived from the electrical impedance measurements and is used to represent the cell status. Overall, the real-time impedance-based cell analyzer allows for real-time, label-free assessment of neuroprotection and neurotoxicity, and the evaluation of second messenger pathways involvement, contributing to more detailed and high-throughput assessment of potential neuroprotective compounds in vitro, for selecting therapeutic candidates.

Improved in vitro neurotoxicity assays would aid the identification of new neuroprotective compounds. The utility of a real-time impedance-based cell analyzer to determine cytotoxicity and cytoprotection in neuronal cell lines and to delineate the involvement of second messenger pathways, thus gaining insight in the mechanism of neuroprotection is presented.

Many brain-related disorders have neuronal cell death involved in their pathophysiology. Improved in vitro models to study neuroprotective or neurotoxic ...

Closed-loop Neuro-robotic Experiments to Test Computational Properties of Neuronal Networks

Information coding in the Central Nervous System (CNS) remains unexplored. There is mounting evidence that, even at a very low level, the representation of a given stimulus might be dependent on context and history. If this is actually the case, bi-directional interactions between the brain (or if need be a reduced model of it) and sensory-motor system can shed a light on how encoding and decoding of information is performed. Here an experimental system is introduced and described in which the activity of a neuronal element (i.e., a network of neurons extracted from embryonic mammalian hippocampi) is given context and used to control the movement of an artificial agent, while environmental information is fed back to the culture as a sequence of electrical stimuli. This architecture allows a quick selection of diverse encoding, decoding, and learning algorithms to test different hypotheses on the computational properties of neuronal networks.

In this paper, an experimental framework to perform closed-loop experiments is presented, in which information processing (i.e., coding and decoding) and learning of neuronal assemblies are studied during the continuous interaction with a robotic body.

Information coding in the Central Nervous System (CNS) remains unexplored. There is mounting evidence that, even at a very low level, the representation ...

Prolonged Incubation of Acute Neuronal Tissue for Electrophysiology and Calcium-imaging

Acute neuronal tissue preparations, brain slices and retinal wholemount, can usually only be maintained for 6 - 8 h following dissection. This limits the experimental time, and increases the number of animals that are utilized per study. This limitation specifically impacts protocols such as calcium imaging that require prolonged pre-incubation with bath-applied dyes. Exponential bacterial growth within 3 - 4 h after slicing is tightly correlated with a decrease in tissue health. This study describes a method for&#160;limiting the proliferation of bacteria in acute preparations to maintain viable neuronal tissue for prolonged periods of time (&#62;24 h) without the need for antibiotics, sterile procedures, or tissue culture media containing growth factors. By cycling the extracellular fluid through UV irradiation and keeping the tissue in a custom holding chamber at 15 - 16 &#176;C, the tissue shows no difference in electrophysiological properties, or calcium signaling through intracellular calcium dyes at &#62;24 h postdissection. These methods will not only extend experimental time for those using acute neuronal tissue, but will reduce the number of animals required to complete experimental goals, and will set a gold standard for acute neuronal tissue incubation.

Once removed from the body, neuronal tissue is greatly affected by environmental conditions, leading to eventual degradation of the tissue after 6 - 8 h. Using a unique incubation method, which closely monitors and regulates the extracellular environment of the tissue, tissue viability can be significantly extended for &#62;24 h.

Acute neuronal tissue preparations, brain slices and retinal wholemount, can usually only be maintained for 6 - 8 h following dissection. This limits the ...

Real-time Iontophoresis with Tetramethylammonium to Quantify Volume Fraction and Tortuosity of Brain Extracellular Space

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the extracellular space (ECS) of the living brain. The ECS surrounds all brain cells and contains both interstitial fluid and extracellular matrix. The transport of many substances required for brain activity, including neurotransmitters, hormones, and nutrients, occurs by diffusion through the ECS. Changes in the volume and geometry of this space occur during normal brain processes, like sleep, and pathological conditions, like ischemia. However, the structure and regulation of brain ECS, particularly in diseased states, remains largely unexplored. The RTI method measures two physical parameters of living brain: volume fraction and tortuosity. Volume fraction is the proportion of tissue volume occupied by ECS. Tortuosity is a measure of the relative hindrance a substance encounters when diffusing through a brain region as compared to a medium with no obstructions. In RTI, an inert molecule is pulsed from a source microelectrode into the brain ECS. As molecules diffuse away from this source, the changing concentration of the ion is measured over time using an ion-selective microelectrode positioned roughly 100 &#181;m away. From the resulting diffusion curve, both volume fraction and tortuosity can be calculated. This technique has been used in brain slices from multiple species (including humans) and in vivo to study acute and chronic changes to ECS. Unlike other methods, RTI can be used to examine both reversible and irreversible changes to the brain ECS in real time.

This protocol describes real-time iontophoresis, a method that measures physical parameters of the extracellular space (ECS) of living brains. The diffusion of an inert molecule released into the ECS is used to calculate the ECS volume fraction and tortuosity. It is ideal for studying acute reversible changes to brain ECS.

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the ...

Live-cell Measurement of Odorant Receptor Activation Using a Real-time cAMP Assay

The enormous sizes of the mammalian odorant receptor (OR) families present difficulties to find their cognate ligands among numerous volatile chemicals. To efficiently and accurately deorphanize ORs, we combine the use of a heterologous cell line to express mammalian ORs and a genetically modified biosensor plasmid to measure cAMP production downstream of OR activation in real time. This assay can be used to screen odorants against ORs and vice versa. Positive odorant-receptor interactions from the screens can be subsequently confirmed by testing against various odor concentrations, generating concentration-response curves. Here we used this method to perform a high-throughput screening of an odorous compound against a human OR library expressed in Hana3A cells and confirmed that the positively-responding receptor is the cognate receptor for the compound of interest. We found this high-throughput detection method to be efficient and reliable in assessing OR activation and our data provide an example of its potential use in OR functional studies.

Characterizing the function of odorant receptors serves an indispensable part in the deorphanization process. We describe a method to measure the activation of odorant receptors in real time using a cAMP assay.

The enormous sizes of the mammalian odorant receptor (OR) families present difficulties to find their cognate ligands among numerous volatile chemicals. ...

Using Neuron Spiking Activity to Trigger Closed-Loop Stimuli in Neurophysiological Experiments

Closed-loop neurophysiological systems use patterns of neuronal activity to trigger stimuli, which in turn affect brain activity. Such closed-loop systems are already found in clinical applications, and are important tools for basic brain research. A particularly interesting recent development is the integration of closed-loop approaches with optogenetics, such that specific patterns of neuronal activity can trigger optical stimulation of selected neuronal groups. However, setting up an electrophysiological system for closed-loop experiments can be difficult. Here, a ready-to-apply Matlab code is provided for triggering stimuli based on the activity of single or multiple neurons. This sample code can be easily modified based on individual needs. For instance, it shows how to trigger sound stimuli and how to change it to trigger an external device connected to a PC serial port. The presented protocol is designed to work with a popular neuronal recording system for animal studies (Neuralynx). The implementation of closed-loop stimulation is demonstrated in an awake rat.

This protocol demonstrates how to use an electrophysiological system for closed-loop stimulation triggered by neuronal activity patterns. Sample Matlab code that can be easily modified for different stimulation devices is also provided.

Closed-loop neurophysiological systems use patterns of neuronal activity to trigger stimuli, which in turn affect brain activity. Such closed-loop systems ...

Open-Source Real-Time Closed-Loop Electrical Threshold Tracking for Translational Pain Research

Nociceptors are a class of primary afferent neurons that signal potentially harmful noxious stimuli. An increase in nociceptor excitability occurs in acute and chronic pain conditions. This produces abnormal ongoing activity or reduced activation thresholds to noxious stimuli. Identifying the cause of this increased excitability is required for the development and validation of mechanism-based treatments. Single-neuron electrical threshold tracking can quantify nociceptor excitability. Therefore, we have developed an application to allow such measurements and demonstrate its use in humans and rodents. APTrack provides real-time data visualization and action potential identification using a temporal raster plot. Algorithms detect action potentials by threshold crossing and monitor their latency after electrical stimulation. The plugin then modulates the electrical stimulation amplitude using an up-down method to estimate the electrical threshold of the nociceptors. The software was built upon the Open Ephys system (V0.54) and coded in C++ using the JUCE framework. It runs on Windows, Linux, and Mac operating systems. The open-source code is available (<a data-saferedirecturl="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://github.com/Microneurography/APTrack&amp;source=gmail&amp;ust=1680789829274000&amp;usg=AOvVaw0nMk9J_EI2jUn8SlmC5JJm" href="https://github.com/Microneurography/APTrack" target="_blank">https://github.com/Microneurography/APTrack</a>). The electrophysiological recordings were taken from nociceptors in both a mouse skin-nerve preparation using the teased fiber method in the saphenous nerve and in healthy human volunteers using microneurography in the superficial peroneal nerve. Nociceptors were classified by their response to thermal and mechanical stimuli, as well as by monitoring the activity-dependent slowing of the conduction velocity. The software facilitated the experiment by simplifying the action potential identification through the temporal raster plot. We demonstrate real-time closed-loop electrical threshold tracking of single-neuron action potentials during&#160;in vivo&#160;human microneurography, for the first time, and during&#160;ex vivo&#160;mouse electrophysiological recordings of C-fibers and A&#948;-fibers. We establish proof of principle by showing that the electrical threshold of a human heat-sensitive C-fiber nociceptor is reduced by heating the receptive field. This plugin enables the electrical threshold tracking of single-neuron action potentials and allows the quantification of changes in nociceptor excitability.

APTrack is a software plugin developed for the Open Ephys platform that enables real-time data visualization and the closed-loop electrical threshold tracking of neuronal action potentials. We have successfully used this in microneurography for human C-fiber nociceptors and mouse C-fiber and A&#948;-fiber nociceptors.

Nociceptors are a class of primary afferent neurons that signal potentially harmful noxious stimuli. An increase in nociceptor excitability occurs in ...