Name: microfluidic devices for characterizing pore-scale event processes in porous media for oil recovery applications
Uploaded: 2018-01-16T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microfluidic Devices for Characterizing Pore-scale Event Processes in Porous Media for Oil Recovery Applications at JoVE.com

We acknowledge the financial support from the Rice University Consortium for Processes in Porous Media (Houston, TX, USA).

Caution: This protocol involves handling a high temperature oven, toxic chemicals, and UV light. Please read all the material safety data sheets carefully and follow your institution&#39;s chemical safety guidelines.
1. Device Design
<ol>
	<li>Design a photomask in a CAD software application.
	<ol>
		<li>Draw a rectangular channel that is 3 cm long and 0.5 cm wide (Figure 1b-top right).</li>
		<li>Create an array of enclosed shapes representing the grains of the...

<ol>
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J., Biswal, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+oil+displacement+with+foam+in+a+microfluidic+device+with+permeability+contrast.">Visualizing oil displacement with foam in a microfluidic device with permeability contrast.</a> Lab Chip. 14 (20), 3968-3977 (2014).</li><li>Ma, K., Liontas, R., Conn, C. A., Hirasaki, G. J., Biswal, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+improved+sweep+with+foam+in+heterogeneous+porous+media+using+microfluidics.">Visualization of improved sweep with foam in heterogeneous porous media using microfluidics.</a> Soft Matter. 8 (41), 10669 (2012).</li><li>Anna, S. L., Bontoux, N., Stone, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+dispersions+using+"flow+focusing"+in+microchannels.">Formation of dispersions using "flow focusing" in microchannels.</a> Appl Phys Lett. 82 (3), 364 (2003).</li><li>Gauteplass, J., Chaudhary, K., Kovscek, A. R., Fern&#248;, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pore-level+foam+generation+and+flow+for+mobility+control+in+fractured+systems.">Pore-level foam generation and flow for mobility control in fractured systems.</a> Colloid Surface A. 468, 184-192 (2015).</li><li>Kovscek, A. R., Radke, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gas+bubble+snap-off+under+pressure-driven+flow+in+constricted+noncircular+capillaries.">Gas bubble snap-off under pressure-driven flow in constricted noncircular capillaries.</a> Colloid Surface A. 117 (1-2), 55-76 (1996).</li><li>G&#233;raud, B., Jones, S. A., Cantat, I., Dollet, B., M&#233;heust, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+flow+of+a+foam+in+a+two-dimensional+porous+medium:+FOAM+FLOW+IN+A+2-D+POROUS+MEDIUM.">The flow of a foam in a two-dimensional porous medium: FOAM FLOW IN A 2-D POROUS MEDIUM.</a> Water Resour Res. 52 (2), 773-790 (2016).</li><li>Lin, Y. -. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Examining+Asphaltene+Solubility+on+Deposition+in+Model+Porous+Media.">Examining Asphaltene Solubility on Deposition in Model Porous Media.</a> Langmuir. 32 (34), 8729-8734 (2016).</li><li>Bartolo, D., Degr&#233;, G., Nghe, P., Studer, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidic+stickers.">Microfluidic stickers.</a> Lab Chip. 8 (2), 274-279 (2008).</li><li>Kenzhekhanov, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Chemical EOR process visualization using NOA81 micromodels. , (2017).</li><li>Zhuang, Y. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+Investigation+of+Asphaltene+Deposition+in+a+Transparent+Microchannel.">Experimental Investigation of Asphaltene Deposition in a Transparent Microchannel.</a> Proceedings of the 1st Thermal and Fluid Engineering Summer Conference. , (2016).</li><li>Ma, K., Rivera, J., Hirasaki, G. J., Biswal, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wettability+control+and+patterning+of+PDMS+using+UV-ozone+and+water+immersion.">Wettability control and patterning of PDMS using UV-ozone and water immersion.</a> J Colloid Interf Sci. 363 (1), 371-378 (2011).</li><li>Duffy, D. C., McDonald, J. C., Schueller, O. J. A., Whitesides, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+Prototyping+of+Microfluidic+Systems+in+Poly(dimethylsiloxane).">Rapid Prototyping of Microfluidic Systems in Poly(dimethylsiloxane).</a> Anal Chem. 70 (23), 4974-4984 (1998).</li><li>Sollier, E., Murray, C., Maoddi, P., Di Carlo, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+prototyping+polymers+for+microfluidic+devices+and+high+pressure+injections.">Rapid prototyping polymers for microfluidic devices and high pressure injections.</a> Lab Chip. 11 (22), 3752 (2011).</li><li>Lee, J. N., Park, C., Whitesides, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solvent+Compatibility+of+Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-Based+Microfluidic+Devices.">Solvent Compatibility of Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-Based Microfluidic Devices.</a> Anal Chem. 75 (23), 6544-6554 (2003).</li><li>Silvestrini, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tailoring+the+wetting+properties+of+thiolene+microfluidic+materials.">Tailoring the wetting properties of thiolene microfluidic materials.</a> Lab Chip. 12 (20), 4041 (2012).</li><li>W&#228;gli, P., Homsy, A., de Rooij, N. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Norland+optical+adhesive+(NOA81)+microchannels+with+adjustable+wetting+behavior+and+high+chemical+resistance+against+a+range+of+mid-infrared-transparent+organic+solvents.">Norland optical adhesive (NOA81) microchannels with adjustable wetting behavior and high chemical resistance against a range of mid-infrared-transparent organic solvents.</a> Sensor Actuat B-Chem. 156 (2), 994-1001 (2011).</li><li>Hung, L. -. H., Lin, R., Lee, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+microfabrication+of+solvent-resistant+biocompatible+microfluidic+devices.">Rapid microfabrication of solvent-resistant biocompatible microfluidic devices.</a> Lab Chip. 8 (6), 983 (2008).</li></ol>

This protocol for studying oil recovery processes in optical adhesive micromodels strikes a balance between the robustness of non-polymeric micromodels &#8211; such as glass or silicon &#8211; and the facile fabrication of PDMS microfluidic devices. Unlike micromodels made of glass or optical adhesive, PDMS devices lack resistance to light organic species. PDMS micromodels are also not ideal for many experiments because the surfaces of these devices have unstable wetting properties, and the polymer matrix is permeable to...

The purpose of this method is to visualize and analyze multi-phase, multi-component fluid interactions and complex pore-scale dynamics in porous media. Fluid flow and transport in porous media have been of interest for many years because these systems are applicable to several subsurface processes such as oil recovery, aquifer remediation, and hydraulic fracturing1,2,3,4,5. Using micromodels to mimic these complex pore-structures, unique insights are gained by visualizing pore-level dynamic events between the different fluid phases and the media6,7,8,9,10,11.
The fabrication of traditional silica-based micromodels is expensive, time consuming, and challenging, yet constructing micromodels from optical adhesive offers a relatively inexpensive, fast, and easy alternative12,13,14,15. Compared with other polymer-based micromodels, optical adhesive exhibits more stable surface wetting properties. For example, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) micromodel surfaces will quickly become hydrophobic during the course of a typical displacement experiment16. Furthermore, the Young&#39;s modulus of PDMS is 2.5 MPa whereas that of optical adhesive is 325 MPa13,17,18. Thus, optical adhesive is less prone to pressure induced deformation and channel failure. Importantly, cured optical adhesive is much more resistant to swelling by low molecular weight organic components, which allows experiments involving crude oil and light solvents to be conducted18. Overall, optical adhesive is a superior alternative to PDMS for displacement studies involving crude oil when silica-based micromodels are prohibitively complex or expensive and high temperature and pressure studies are not required.
The protocol described in this publication provides the step-by-step fabrication instructions for optical adhesive micromodels and reports the subtle tricks that ensure success in the manipulation of small quantities of fluids. The design and fabrication of optical adhesive based micromodels with soft lithography is first described. Then, the fluid displacement strategy is given for ultra-low flow rates that are commonly unattainable with mass flow controllers. Next, a representative experimental result is given as an example. This experiment reveals foam destabilization and propagation behavior in the presence of crude oil and heterogeneous porous media. Lastly, typical image processing and data analysis is reported.
The method provided here is appropriate for visualization applications involving multi-phase flow and interactions in confined microchannel spaces. Specifically, this method is optimized for characteristic micro-feature resolutions greater than 5 and less than 700 &#181;m. Typical flow rates are on the order of 0.1 to 1 mL/h. In studies of crude oil or light solvent displacement by aqueous or gaseous fluids on the order of these optimized parameters at ambient conditions, this protocol should be appropriate.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3 mL Leur-Lok Syringe</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>14-823-435</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL Glass Syringe</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>1482698G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photomask</td>
			<td>CAD/Art Services</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon Wafer</td>
			<td>University Wafer</td>
			<td>452</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Propylene-Glycol-Methyl-Ether-Acetate&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>484431-4L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>150 mm Glass Petri Dish</td>
			<td>Carolina Biological Supply</td>
			<td>#721134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60 mm Plastic Petri Dish</td>
			<td>Carolina Biological Supply</td>
			<td>#741246</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mask Aligner</td>
			<td>EV Group</td>
			<td>EVG 620</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mm Biopsy Punch</td>
			<td>Miltex, Plainsboro, NJ</td>
			<td>69031-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Industrial Dispensing Tip</td>
			<td>CML Supply</td>
			<td>Gauge 23</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>IX-71</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasma System</td>
			<td>Harrick Plasma</td>
			<td>PDC-32G</td>
			<td>Plasma cleaner</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polydimehtylsiloxane (PDMS)</td>
			<td>Dow Corning, Midland, MI</td>
			<td>SYLGARD 184</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Norland Optical Adhesive 81 (NOA81) or (OA)</td>
			<td>Norland Products Inc.</td>
			<td>8116</td>
			<td>Optical adhesive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quick-Set Epoxy</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>4001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Slides</td>
			<td>Globe Scientic Inc.</td>
			<td>1321</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 2015 Photoresist</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td>SU-8 2015</td>
			<td>Photo resist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Pump</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>Fusion 400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Capillary Tubing</td>
			<td>SGE Analytical Science</td>
			<td>1154710C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High-Speed Camera</td>
			<td>Vision Research</td>
			<td>V 4.3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene Tubing</td>
			<td>Scientific Commodities Inc.</td>
			<td>#BB31695-PE/3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

microfluidic devices for characterizing pore-scale event processes in porous media for oil recovery applications

Microfluidic devices are versatile tools for studying transport processes at a microscopic scale. A demand exists for microfluidic devices that are resistant to low molecular-weight oil components, unlike traditional polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. Here, we demonstrate a facile method for making a device with this property, and we use the product of this protocol for examining the pore-scale mechanisms by which foam recovers crude oil. A pattern is first designed using computer-aided design (CAD) software and printed on a transparency with a high-resolution printer. This pattern is then transferred to a photoresist via a lithography procedure. PDMS is cast on the pattern, cured in an oven, and removed to obtain a mold. A thiol-ene crosslinking polymer, commonly used as an optical adhesive (OA), is then poured onto the mold and cured under UV light. The PDMS mold is peeled away from the optical adhesive cast. A glass substrate is then prepared, and the two halves of the device are bonded together. Optical adhesive-based devices are more robust than traditional PDMS microfluidic devices. The epoxy structure is resistant to swelling by many organic solvents, which opens new possibilities for experiments involving light organic liquids. Additionally, the surface wettability behavior of these devices is more stable than that of PDMS. The construction of optical adhesive microfluidic devices is simple, yet requires incrementally more effort than the making of PDMS-based devices. Also, though optical adhesive devices are stable in organic liquids, they may exhibit reduced bond-strength after a long time. Optical adhesive microfluidic devices can be made in geometries that act as 2-D micromodels for porous media. These devices are applied in the study of oil displacement to improve our understanding of the pore-scale mechanisms involved in enhanced oil recovery and aquifer remediation.

In this example experiment, aqueous foam is used to displace Middle East crude oil (with a viscosity of 5.4 cP and API gravity of 40&#176;) in a heterogeneous porous media with layered permeability contrast. A PDMS foam generator is connected to an optical adhesive micromodel which was previously completely saturated with crude oil. Figure 1a shows the CAD design of the photomask for the PDMS foam generator, the photoresist-patterned silicon wafer, and the co...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microfluidic Devices for Characterizing Pore-scale Event Processes in Porous Media for Oil Recovery Applications at JoVE.com

Microfluidic Devices for Characterizing Pore-scale Event Processes in Porous Media for Oil Recovery Applications

The goal of this procedure is to easily and rapidly produce a microfluidic device with customizable geometry and resistance to swelling by organic fluids for oil recovery studies. A polydimethylsiloxane mold is first generated, and then used to cast the epoxy-based device. A representative displacement study is reported.

Microfluidic devices are versatile tools for studying transport processes at a microscopic scale. A demand exists for microfluidic devices that are ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to rapidly produce a microfluidic device with customizable geometry for its use in oil recovery studies. This method allows us to be able to study multi-phase flows in porous media. By using microfluidic systems to be able to actually visualize these types of complex flows, we can design better enhanced oil recovery methods for large scale reservoir systems.The main advantage of this technique is that it allows us to rapidly gather data and different enhanced oil recovery methods in a safe and cost-effective way. This method can provide insight into enhanced oil recovery mechanisms. It can also be applied to other systems such as CO2 sequestration and aquifer remediation.To begin, design a photo mask consisting of a rectangular channel filled with an array of posts using CAD software. Expose this pattern on a silicone wafer coated with 20 microns of photo resist. And use this master to create a PDMS mold as described in the accompanying text protocol.Place the clean PDMS mold pattern side up in the bottom of a dust free 150 millimeter plastic petri dish. Allow the PDMS to adhere to the plastic for 10 seconds and then protect the surface of the PDMS with clear plastic tape. The procedure may be paused at this point.Next, remove the tape from the pattern surface and pour optical adhesive into the dish to a depth of approximately 0.9 centimeters above the top surface of the mold. Use a cotton swab to gently remove any bubbles that form. Now, cure the optical adhesive using a UV light curing system as described in the accompanying text protocol.Next, use a box cutter to carefully break the optical adhesive out of the mold. Then, use a sturdy pair of scissors to remove excess optical adhesive from the edge of the design. Slowly peel the PDMS mold away from the optical adhesive puck.With a 1 millimeter biopsy punch, create an inlet, an outlet, and drain holes in the device. Finally, use clear tape to protect the patterned portions of the optical adhesive and PDMS surfaces. Place a new glass slide onto a spin coater and dispense one millimeter of optical adhesive onto the slide.Spin coat the slide in two steps. First, spin it at 500 RPM for five seconds and then increase the RPM to 4000 and spin it for 20 seconds. Quickly transfer the substrate to the UV light treatment and partially cure the thin optical adhesive layer under the UV light for 30 seconds.Next, place the optical adhesive cast pattern-side up and the substrate coated-side up in an oxygen plasma cleaner. Pull a vacuum to 540 millitorr. And then plasma treat the surface for 20 seconds.When finished, remove the pieces and firmly press the two treated surfaces together until all undesired air pockets have been minimized or removed. Then, place the device back under the UV light and fully cure it for 20 minutes. Next, place the device on a hot plate heated to 50 degrees celsius for 18 hours.When finished, insert six inch long segments of 0.58 millimeter ID low density polyethylene tubing into each of the ports on the device. Then, add a quickset epoxy to secure the tubing into place. Use tape to secure the microfluidic device on an inverted microscope that is equipped with a high speed camera.Select a 4x objective and focus on an area of interest. Here, the inlet region of the device is shown. Then, load three milliliters of crude or modal oil into a 10 milliliter glass syringe equipped with a 23 gauge industrial dispensing tip.Secure the syringe to the syringe pump holder and set the appropriate diameter value on the syringe pump settings. Next, load one milliliter of the displacing fluid into a three milliliter plastic syringe equipped with a 23 gauge industrial dispensing tip. Secure the syringe in the syringe pump holder and again, set the appropriate diameter value on the syringe pump settings.Connect the displacing fluid to the inlet of the device by inserting the needle tip into the tubing. Then, connect the oil-filled syringe to its port. Begin flowing the oil into the outlet port of the device at two milliliters per hour while simultaneously flowing the displacing fluid into the inlet port at 0.8 milliliters per hour.The optional foam generator will be used for this demonstration. Collect the affluent into a 20 milliliter glass vial until the two fluids both flow out the drain port. The displacing fluid should not enter the porous media, but should instead go directly out the drain until the camera is in place and the filming has begun.Begin filming the area of interest on the porous media device at a frame rate that is fast enough to capture the desired phenomenon. Additionally capture a still image of the 100%oil saturated area. Then, swiftly and simultaneously cut the tubing that is flowing in the oil while clamping the drain tube with a five centimeter binder clip.Allow the displacing fluid to invade the device until either the oil displacement reaches steady state or the camera runs out of memory. Typical results from an oil saturated micro model are shown here. In the fracture region, the foam diverts into the matrixes of lower permeability as expected.The foam is generated through two main mechanisms which can be described as pinch-off and lamella division. Foam destruction can be easily identified in the forms of coalescence, capillary suction, and diffusion coarsening. Following this method, we can actually be able to use these microfluidic systems to study other enhanced oil recovery processes, such as alkaline flooding, polymer flooding, surfactant flooding, as well as being able to use them to study other complex porous media processes such as aquifer remediation.So another area of interest is actually using these microfluidic devices to study carbon capture and sequestration. We can actually see the mechanisms by which carbon dioxide is trapped within the porous media through these microfluidic systems.

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