Name: coincubation assay for quantifying competitive interactions between vibrio fischeri isolates
Uploaded: 2019-07-22T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Coincubation Assay for Quantifying Competitive Interactions between Vibrio fischeri Isolates at JoVE.com

We would like to thank reviewers for their helpful feedback. A.N.S. was supported by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation through Grant GBMF 255.03 to the Life Sciences Research Foundation.

1. Prepare Strains for Coincubation
<ol>
	<li>Choose an appropriate reference strain that will serve as the target for bacterial competition during the coincubation assay. See Discussion for best practices when selecting a reference strain and how the reference strain will impact results. In this protocol, V. fischeri strain ES114 will serve as the reference strain.</li>
	<li>Determining which selection and screening methods will be used to distinguish between the isolates in coincubat...

<ol>
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D., Blockesh, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+type+VI+secretion+system+facilitates+niche+domination.">Bacterial type VI secretion system facilitates niche domination.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (36), 8855-8857 (2018).</li><li>Maclntyre, D. L., Miyata, S. T., Kitaoka, M., Pukatzki, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Vibrio+cholerae+type+VI+secretion+system+displays+antimicrobial+properties.">The Vibrio cholerae type VI secretion system displays antimicrobial properties.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (45), 19520-19524 (2010).</li><li>Salomon, D., Gonzalez, H., Updegraff, B. L., Orth, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vibrio+parahaemolyticus+type+VI+secretion+system+1+is+activated+in+marine+conditions+to+target+bacteria,+and+is+differentially+regulated+from+system+2.">Vibrio parahaemolyticus type VI secretion system 1 is activated in marine conditions to target bacteria, and is differentially regulated from system 2.</a> PloS One. 8 (4), e61086 (2013).</li><li>Sana, T. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salmonella+Typhimurium+utilizes+a+T6SS-mediated+antibacterial+weapon+to+establish+in+the+host+gut.">Salmonella Typhimurium utilizes a T6SS-mediated antibacterial weapon to establish in the host gut.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (34), E5044-E5051 (2016).</li><li>Schwarz, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Burkholderia+type+VI+secretion+systems+have+distinct+roles+in+eukaryotic+and+bacterial+cell+interactions.">Burkholderia type VI secretion systems have distinct roles in eukaryotic and bacterial cell interactions.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 6 (8), e1001068 (2010).</li><li>Wenren, L. M., Sullivan, N. L., Cardarelli, L., Septer, A. N., Gibbs, K. 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A., Kolter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+developments+in+microbial+interspecies+signaling.">New developments in microbial interspecies signaling.</a> Current Opinion in Microbiology. 12 (2), 205-214 (2009).</li><li>Roelofs, K. G., Coyne, M. J., Gentyala, R. R., Chatzidaki-Livanis, M., Comstock, L. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacteroidales+secreted+antimicrobial+proteins+target+surface+molecules+necessary+for+gut+colonization+and+mediate+competition+in+vivo.">Bacteroidales secreted antimicrobial proteins target surface molecules necessary for gut colonization and mediate competition in vivo.</a> MBio. 7 (4), e01055-e01016 (2016).</li><li>Dey, A., Vassallo, C. N., Conklin, A. C., Pathak, D. 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H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rules+of+engagement:+the+type+VI+secretion+system+in+Vibrio+cholerae.">Rules of engagement: the type VI secretion system in Vibrio cholerae.</a> Trends in microbiology. 25 (4), 267-279 (2017).</li><li>Speare, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+symbionts+use+a+type+VI+secretion+system+to+eliminate+competitors+in+their+natural+host.">Bacterial symbionts use a type VI secretion system to eliminate competitors in their natural host.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (36), E8528-E8537 (2018).</li><li>Shank, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+coculture+to+detect+chemically+mediated+interspecies+interactions.">Using coculture to detect chemically mediated interspecies interactions.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (80), (2013).</li><li>Long, R. A., Rowley, D. C., Zamora, E., Liu, J., Bartlett, D. H., Azam, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antagonistic+interactions+among+marine+bacteria+impede+the+proliferation+of+Vibrio+cholerae.">Antagonistic interactions among marine bacteria impede the proliferation of Vibrio cholerae.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (12), 8531-8536 (2005).</li><li>Dunn, A. K., Millikan, D. S., Adin, D. M., Bose, J. L., Stabb, E. 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The coincubation assay described above provides a powerful method to discover interbacterial competition. This approach allowed for the identification of intraspecific competition among V. fischeri isolates and characterization of the competitive mechanism19. Although the method described was optimized for the marine bacterium V. fischeri, it can be easily modified to accommodate other bacterial species including clinical and environmental isolates. It is important to note that c...

This manuscript outlines a culture-based method to determine whether two bacterial isolates are capable of competitive interactions. When studying mixed populations, it is important to assess the extent to which the bacterial isolates interact, particularly whether isolates are directly competing through interference mechanisms. Interference competition refers to interactions where one population directly inhibits the growth or kills a competitor population1. These interactions are important to identify because they can have profound effects on a microbial community&#8217;s structure and function2,3.
Mechanisms for microbial competition have been discovered broadly in genomes of bacteria from diverse environments including both host-associated and free-living bacteria4,5,6,7,8,9. A variety of competition strategies have been described10,11 including diffusible mechanisms, such as bactericidal chemicals1,12 and secreted antimicrobial peptides13, as well as contact-dependent mechanisms that require cell-cell contact to transfer an inhibitory effector into target cells9,14,15,16,17,18.
Although culture-based coincubations are commonly used in microbiology5,8,19, this manuscript outlines how to use the assay to characterize the mechanism of competition, as well as suggestions for adapting the protocol for use with other bacterial species. Furthermore, this method describes multiple approaches for analyzing and presenting the data to answer different questions about the nature of the competitive interactions. Although the techniques described here were used previously to identify the interbacterial killing mechanism underlying intraspecific competition between symbiotic strains of coisolated Vibrio fischeri bacteria19, they are suitable for many bacterial species including environmental isolates and human pathogens, and can be utilized to evaluate both contact-dependent and diffusible competitive mechanisms. Steps in the protocol may require optimization for other bacterial species. Given that more model systems are expanding their studies beyond the use of isogenic organisms to include different genotypes10,16,20,21, this method will be a valuable resource for researchers seeking to understand how competition impacts multi-strain or multi-species systems.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL Microcentrifuge Tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-408-129</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 &#956;L multichannel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 &#956;L multichannel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>300 &#956;L multichannel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 &#956;L single channel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 &#956;L single channel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>200 &#956;L single channel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1000 &#956;L single channel pipette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well plates</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>07-200-84</td>
			<td>sterile with lid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well plates</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10062-900</td>
			<td>sterile with lid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calculator</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloramphenicol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C0378</td>
			<td>stock (20 mg/mL in Ethanol); final concentration in media (2 &#956;g /mL LBS)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence dissecting microscope with camera and imaging software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>forceps</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>08-880</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin Sulfate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP906-5</td>
			<td>stock (100 mg/mL in water, filter sterilize); final concentration in media (1 &#956;g/mL LBS)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrocellulose membrane (FS MCE, 25MM, NS)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>SA1J788H5</td>
			<td>0.22 &#956;m nitrocellulose membrane (pk of 100)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>petri plates</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>FB0875713</td>
			<td>sterile with lid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Semi-micro cuvettes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97000-586</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TipOne 0.1-10 &#956;L starter system</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>1111-3500</td>
			<td>10 racks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TipOne 200 &#956;L starter system</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>1111-500</td>
			<td>10 racks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TipOne 1000 &#956;L starter system</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>1111-2520</td>
			<td>10 racks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LBS media</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1M Tris Buffer (pH ~7.5)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>50 mL 1 M stock buffer (62 mL HCl, 938 mL DI water, 121 g Trizma Base)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar Technical</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>DF0812-17-9</td>
			<td>15 g (Add only for plates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DI water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>950 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S640-3</td>
			<td>20 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptone</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP97265</td>
			<td>10 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast Extract</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP9727-2</td>
			<td>5 g</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

coincubation assay for quantifying competitive interactions between vibrio fischeri isolates

This manuscript describes a culture-based, coincubation assay for detecting and characterizing competitive interactions between two bacterial populations. This method employs stable plasmids that allow each population to be differentially tagged with distinct antibiotic resistance capabilities and fluorescent proteins for selection and visual discrimination of each population, respectively. Here, we describe the preparation and coincubation of competing Vibrio fischeri strains, fluorescence microscopy imaging, and quantitative data analysis. This approach is simple, yields quick results, and can be used to determine whether one population kills or inhibits the growth of another population, and whether competition is mediated through a diffusible molecule or requires direct cell-cell contact. Because each bacterial population expresses a different fluorescent protein, the assay permits the spatial discrimination of competing populations within a mixed colony. Although the described methods are performed with the symbiotic bacterium V. fischeri using conditions optimized for this species, the protocol can be adapted for most culturable bacterial isolates.

In order to assess competitive interactions between bacterial populations, a coincubation assay protocol was developed and optimized for V. fischeri. This method utilizes stable plasmids that encode antibiotic resistance genes and fluorescent proteins, allowing for differential selection and visual discrimination of each strain. By analyzing the data collected from the coincubation assay, the competitive outcome of an interaction and the mechanism of the interaction can be identi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Coincubation Assay for Quantifying Competitive Interactions between Vibrio fischeri Isolates at JoVE.com

Coincubation Assay for Quantifying Competitive Interactions between Vibrio fischeri Isolates

Bacteria encode diverse mechanisms for engaging in interbacterial competition. Here, we present a culture-based protocol for characterizing competitive interactions between bacterial isolates and how they impact the spatial structure of a mixed population.

Coincubation Assay for Quantifying Competitive Interactions between Vibrio fischeri Isolates

This manuscript describes a culture-based, coincubation assay for detecting and characterizing competitive interactions between two bacterial populations. ...

Our protocol provides a simple yet robust approach to identify and characterize competitive mechanisms between different strains of Vibrio fischeri bacteria. This method uses stable plasmids that encode different antibiotic resistance genes and fluorescent proteins that allow for differential selection and visual discrimination of each bacterial strain in a mixed culture. To begin, use a sterile toothpick to scrape the cells from the agar plate in the size of a grain of rice.Resuspend the cells in a 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tube containing one milliliter of LBS broth. To break up the cell clumps, press them into the side of the tube and then pipette up and down vigorously. Close the tube and vortex for one to two seconds and repeat if the cell clumps are still visible until the sample is visually uniform.Repeat these preparation steps from cell scraping to vortexing for all samples. Measure and record the optical density at 600 nanometers for all samples. To obtain an accurate OD measurement, dilute the samples up to 10-fold using LBS broth.Then normalize each sample to the desired OD 600. To mix the reference strain and competitor strain in a one to one ratio, add 100 microliters of each strain normalized to OD 1.0 to a labeled 1.5 milliliter centrifuge tube and vortex for one to two seconds. As a control, mix the reference strain with a differentially tagged version of itself and vortex as well.It is critical to achieve the correct starting ratio as it can considerably change the outcome of the experiment. To ensure success, this step may require optimization for a given bacterial species. After repeating this step for each biological replicate, there should be four biological replicates with differentially tagged reference strains as controls and four biological replicates with differentially tagged reference and competitor strains.To make culture spots that will be used for fluorescence microscopy after the incubation, add 10 microliters of each control and experimental mixture onto a Petri plate containing LBS agar. After the spots have completely dried on the bench, incubate the plates at 24 degrees Celsius for 24 hours. To make culture spots that will be used to quantify the colony forming units for each strain at the end of the experiment, add 10 microliters of each control and experimental mixtures into 24 well plates containing one milliliter of LBS agar per well.After the spots have completely dried, incubate the plates at 24 degrees Celsius for five hours. To perform a serial dilution of starting coincubation mixtures, rotate a 96 well plate 90 degrees so there are eight columns and 12 rows. Label each row with the strain ID, the replicate number, and the time starting with t zero.Label the LBS agar plates supplemented with the appropriate antibiotic on which to spot the dilution series while making sure to identify which strain each antibiotic plate is selecting for. With a multi-channel pipette, add 180 microliters of LBS broth to each well leaving the first column empty for the undiluted coincubation mixture. Using a 200 microliter single channel pipette, transfer 100 microliters of the coincubation mixture from the tube to the first well of the first column, then discard the tip and repeat for all coincubation mixtures.With a multi-channel pipette, transfer 20 microliters from column one to column two and pipette up and down to mix. Discard the tips and repeat for each column while being consistent with the number of pipetting up and down for each dilution. By the end, each row will contain a 10-fold serial dilution of the initial mixture.Use a multi-channel pipette fitted with eight tips to aspirate five microliters from each well in a dilution series and spot onto the Kanamycin supplemented LBS agar plate that selects for the reference strain. Repeat this step to select for the competitor strain spotting onto the Chloramphenicol supplemented plate. After the spots have dried completely, place the plates in the incubator at 24 degrees Celsius.After the coincubation spots and the 24 well plates have been incubated for five hours at 24 degrees Celsius, add one milliliter of LBS broth to each well. Resuspend by pipetting up and down until all cells have been resuspended being consistent with the vigor in which the cells are resuspended across all replicates. Once each coincubation spot is resuspended, prepare a 96 well plate for a serial dilution and LBS agar plates with the appropriate antibiotics on which to spot the dilution in the same way as previously done.To complete the serial dilution for t final measurements in the 24 well plates, perform steps used for the serial dilution of the starting inoculum and spot each dilution on LBS agar plates as done previously. Proceed with imaging the coincubation spots on the Petri plates and data analysis as described in the manuscript. In the experimental treatment, the reference strain and competitor strain one are present at a proportion of 0.5 at the beginning and end of the experiment consistent with the control treatment.Log RCI values were not statistically different from zero for the control treatment or when the reference strain was incubated with competitor strain one. These data suggest that there was no competition between the reference strain and competitor strain one. By contrast, when the reference strain was incubated with competitor strain two, the reference strain decreased from a proportion of 0.5 at the beginning to a proportion less than 0.01 at the end of the experiment.Furthermore, log RCI values were significantly greater than zero when the reference strain was incubated with competitor strain two. Together, these data indicate that the proportion of the reference strain decreased in the presence of competitor strain two suggesting competition between the strains. When the reference strain was incubated with competitor strain one, CFUs of both strains increased over the course of five hours and were not significantly different suggesting that no competition occurred.Also, approximately 3200%recovery was observed which was not statistically different from the control. However, when the reference strain was incubated with competitor strain two, reference strain CFUs were significantly lower than strain two CFUs in the control at five hours. Also, approximately 4%recovery was observed significantly lower than the control.Altogether, these data indicate that strain two out competed the reference strain by killing its cells. The most important step in this procedure is achieving the correct starting ratio as it can significantly impact results.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Colonization of Euprymna scolopes Squid by Vibrio fischeri

Specific bacteria are found in association with animal tissue1-5. Such host-bacterial associations (symbioses) can be detrimental (pathogenic), have no fitness consequence (commensal), or be beneficial (mutualistic). While much attention has been given to pathogenic interactions, little is known about the processes that dictate the reproducible acquisition of beneficial/commensal bacteria from the environment. The light-organ mutualism between the marine Gram-negative bacterium V. fischeri and the Hawaiian bobtail squid, E. scolopes, represents a highly specific interaction in which one host (E. scolopes) establishes a symbiotic relationship with only one bacterial species (V. fischeri) throughout the course of its lifetime6,7. Bioluminescence produced by V. fischeri during this interaction provides an anti-predatory benefit to E. scolopes during nocturnal activities8,9, while the nutrient-rich host tissue provides V. fischeri with a protected niche10. During each host generation, this relationship is recapitulated, thus representing a predictable process that can be assessed in detail at various stages of symbiotic development. In the laboratory, the juvenile squid hatch aposymbiotically (uncolonized), and, if collected within the first 30-60 minutes and transferred to symbiont-free water, cannot be colonized except by the experimental inoculum6. This interaction thus provides a useful model system in which to assess the individual steps that lead to specific acquisition of a symbiotic microbe from the environment11,12.
Here we describe a method to assess the degree of colonization that occurs when newly hatched aposymbiotic E. scolopes are exposed to (artificial) seawater containing V. fischeri. This simple assay describes inoculation, natural infection, and recovery of the bacterial symbiont from the nascent light organ of E. scolopes. Care is taken to provide a consistent environment for the animals during symbiotic development, especially with regard to water quality and light cues. Methods to characterize the symbiotic population described include (1) measurement of bacterially-derived bioluminescence, and (2) direct colony counting of recovered symbionts.

Colonization of Euprymna scolopes Squid by Vibrio fischeri

The method outlines the procedure by which the Hawaiian bobtail squid, Euprymna scolopes and its bacterial symbiont, Vibrio fischeri, are raised separately and then introduced to allow for specific colonization of the squid light organ by the bacteria. Colonization detection by bacterially-derived luminescence and by direct colony counting are described.

Specific bacteria are found in association with animal tissue1-5. Such host-bacterial associations (symbioses) can be detrimental (pathogenic), have no ...

Monitoring Dendritic Cell Migration using 19F / 1H Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Continuous advancements in noninvasive imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have greatly improved our ability to study physiological or pathological processes in living organisms. MRI is also proving to be a valuable tool for capturing transplanted cells in vivo. Initial cell labeling strategies for MRI made use of contrast agents that influence the MR relaxation times (T1, T2, T2*) and lead to an enhancement (T1) or depletion (T2*) of signal where labeled cells are present. T2* enhancement agents such as ultrasmall iron oxide agents (USPIO) have been employed to study cell migration and some have also been approved by the FDA for clinical application. A drawback of T2* agents is the difficulty to distinguish the signal extinction created by the labeled cells from other artifacts such as blood clots, micro bleeds or air bubbles. In this article, we describe an emerging technique for tracking cells in vivo that is based on labeling the cells with fluorine (19F)-rich particles. These particles are prepared by emulsifying perfluorocarbon (PFC) compounds and then used to label cells, which subsequently can be imaged by 19F MRI. Important advantages of PFCs for cell tracking in vivo include (i) the absence of carbon-bound 19F in vivo, which then yields background-free images and complete cell selectivityand(ii) the possibility to quantify the cell signal by 19F MR spectroscopy.

Monitoring Dendritic Cell Migration using 19F / 1H Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Tracking of cells using MRI has gained remarkable attention in the past years. This protocol describes the labeling of dendritic cells with fluorine (19F)-rich particles, the in vivo application of these cells, and monitoring the extent of their migration to the draining lymph node with 19F/1H MRI and 19F MRS.

Continuous  advancements in noninvasive imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance  imaging (MRI) have greatly improved our ability to study ...

A Novel In vitro Model for Studying the Interactions Between Human Whole Blood and Endothelium

The majority of all known diseases are accompanied by disorders of the cardiovascular system. Studies into the complexity of the interacting pathways activated during cardiovascular pathologies are, however, limited by the lack of robust and physiologically relevant methods. In order to model pathological vascular events we have developed an in vitro assay for studying the interaction between endothelium and whole blood. The assay consists of primary human endothelial cells, which are placed in contact with human whole blood. The method utilizes native blood with no or very little anticoagulant, enabling study of delicate interactions between molecular and cellular components present in a blood vessel.
We investigated functionality of the assay by comparing activation of coagulation by different blood volumes incubated with or without human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Whereas a larger blood volume contributed to an increase in the formation of thrombin antithrombin (TAT) complexes, presence of HUVEC resulted in reduced activation of coagulation. Furthermore, we applied image analysis of leukocyte attachment to HUVEC stimulated with tumor necrosis factor (TNF&#945;) and found the presence of CD16+ cells to be significantly higher on TNF&#945; stimulated cells as compared to unstimulated cells after blood contact. In conclusion, the assay may be applied to study vascular pathologies, where interactions between the endothelium and the blood compartment are perturbed.

A Novel In vitro Model for Studying the Interactions Between Human Whole Blood and Endothelium

The accessibility of reliable models to investigate vascular blood interactions in humans is lacking. We present an in vitro model of cultured primary human endothelial cells combined with human whole blood to investigate cellular interactions both in the blood (ELISA) and the vascular compartment (microscopy).

The majority of all known diseases are accompanied by disorders of the cardiovascular system. Studies into the complexity of the interacting pathways ...

Assay of Adhesion Under Shear Stress for the Study of T Lymphocyte-Adhesion Molecule Interactions

Overall, T cell adhesion is a critical component of function, contributing to the distinct processes of cellular recruitment to sites of inflammation and interaction with antigen presenting cells (APC) in the formation of immunological synapses. These two contexts of T cell adhesion differ in that T cell-APC interactions can be considered static, while T cell-blood vessel interactions are challenged by the shear stress generated by circulation itself. T cell-APC interactions are classified as static in that the two cellular partners are static relative to each other. Usually, this interaction occurs within the lymph nodes. As a T cell interacts with the blood vessel wall, the cells arrest and must resist the generated shear stress.1,2 These differences highlight the need to better understand static adhesion and adhesion under flow conditions as two distinct regulatory processes. The regulation of T cell adhesion can be most succinctly described as controlling the affinity state of integrin molecules expressed on the cell surface, and thereby regulating the interaction of integrins with the adhesion molecule ligands expressed on the surface of the interacting cell. Our current understanding of the regulation of integrin affinity states comes from often simplistic in vitro model systems. The assay of adhesion using flow conditions described here allows for the visualization and accurate quantification of T cell-epithelial cell interactions in real time following a stimulus. An adhesion under flow assay can be applied to studies of adhesion signaling within T cells following treatment with inhibitory or stimulatory substances. Additionally, this assay can be expanded beyond T cell signaling to any adhesive leukocyte population and any integrin-adhesion molecule pair.

This flow adhesion assay provides a simple, high impact model of T cell-epithelial cell interactions. A syringe pump is used to generate shear stress, and confocal microscopy captures images for quantification. The goal of these studies is to effectively quantify T cell adhesion using flow conditions.

Overall, T cell adhesion is a critical component of function, contributing to the distinct processes of cellular recruitment to sites of inflammation and ...

Development of a More Sensitive and Specific Chromogenic Agar Medium for the Detection of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Other Vibrio Species

Foodborne infections in the US caused by Vibrio species have shown an upward trend. In the genus Vibrio, V. parahaemolyticus is responsible for the majority of Vibrio-associated infections. Thus, accurate differentiation among Vibrio spp. and detection of V. parahaemolyticus is critically important to ensure the safety of our food supply. Although molecular techniques are increasingly common, culture-depending methods are still routinely done and they are considered standard methods in certain circumstances. Hence, a novel chromogenic agar medium was tested with the goal of providing a better method for isolation and differentiation of clinically relevant Vibrio spp. The protocol compared the sensitivity, specificity and detection limit for the detection of V. parahaemolyticus between the new chromogenic medium and a conventional medium. Various V. parahaemolyticus strains (n=22) representing diverse serotypes and source of origins were used. They were previously identified by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and further verified in our laboratory by tlh-PCR. In at least four separate trials, these strains were inoculated on the chromogenic agar and thiosulfate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose (TCBS) agar, which is the recommended medium for culturing this species, followed by incubation at 35-37 &#176;C for 24-96 hr. Three V. parahaemolyticus strains (13.6%) did not grow optimally on TCBS, nonetheless exhibited green colonies if there was growth. Two strains (9.1%) did not yield the expected cyan colonies on the chromogenic agar. Non-V. parahaemolyticus strains (n=32) were also tested to determine the specificity of the chromogenic agar. Among these strains, 31 did not grow or exhibited other colony morphologies. The mean recovery of V. parahaemolyticus on the chromogenic agar was ~96.4% relative to tryptic soy agar supplemented with 2% NaCl. In conclusion, the new chromogenic agar is an effective medium to detect V. parahaemolyticus and to differentiate it from other vibrios.

Development of a More Sensitive and Specific Chromogenic Agar Medium for the Detection of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Other Vibrio Species

Detection and isolation of clinically relevant Vibrio species require selective and differential culture media. This study evaluated the ability of a new chromogenic medium to detect and identify V. parahaemolyticus and other related species. The new medium was found to have better sensitivity and specificity than the conventional medium.

Foodborne infections in the US caused by Vibrio species have shown an upward trend. In the genus Vibrio, V. parahaemolyticus is responsible for the ...

A New Method for Qualitative Multi-scale Analysis of Bacterial Biofilms on Filamentous Fungal Colonies Using Confocal and Electron Microscopy

Bacterial biofilms frequently form on fungal surfaces and can be involved in numerous bacterial-fungal interaction processes, such as metabolic cooperation, competition, or predation. The study of biofilms is important in many biological fields, including environmental science, food production, and medicine. However, few studies have focused on such bacterial biofilms, partially due to the difficulty of investigating them. Most of the methods for qualitative and quantitative biofilm analyses described in the literature are only suitable for biofilms forming on abiotic surfaces or on homogeneous and thin biotic surfaces, such as a monolayer of epithelial cells.
While laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) is often used to analyze in situ and in vivo biofilms, this technology becomes very challenging when applied to bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae, due to the thickness and the three dimensions of the hyphal networks. To overcome this shortcoming, we developed a protocol combining microscopy with a method to limit the accumulation of hyphal layers in fungal colonies. Using this method, we were able to investigate the development of bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae at multiple scales using both LSCM and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This report describes the protocol, including microorganism cultures, bacterial biofilm formation conditions, biofilm staining, and LSCM and SEM visualizations.

This protocol describes a new method to grow and qualitatively analyze bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae by confocal and electron microscopy.

Bacterial biofilms frequently form on fungal surfaces and can be involved in numerous bacterial-fungal interaction processes, such as metabolic ...

Laboratory Techniques Used to Maintain and Differentiate Biotypes of Vibrio cholerae Clinical and Environmental Isolates

The aquatic Gram-negative bacterium Vibrio cholerae is the etiological agent of the infectious gastrointestinal disease cholera. Due to the global prevalence and severity of this disease, V. cholerae has been extensively studied in both environmental and laboratory settings, requiring proper maintenance and culturing techniques. Classical and El Tor are two main biotypes that compose the V. cholerae O1 serogroup, each displaying unique genotypic and phenotypic characteristics that provide reliable mechanisms for biotype characterization, and require distinct virulence inducing culturing conditions. Regardless of the biotype of the causative strain for any given infection or outbreak, the standard treatment for the disease involves rehydration therapy supplemented with a regimen of antibiotics. However, biotype classification may be necessary for laboratory studies and may have broader impacts in the biomedical field. In the early 2000&#39;s clinical isolates were identified which exhibit genotypic and phenotypic traits from both classical and El Tor biotypes. The newly identified hybrids, termed El Tor variants, have caused clinical and environmental isolate biotype identification to become more complex than previous traditional single assay identification protocols. In addition to describing V. cholerae general maintenance and culturing techniques, this manuscript describes a series of gene specific (ctxB and tcpA) PCR-based genetic screens and phenotypic assays (polymyxin B resistance, citrate metabolism, proteolytic activity, hemolytic activity, motility, and glucose metabolism via Voges-Proskauer assay) collectively used to characterize and/or distinguish between classical and El Tor biotypes. Together, these assays provide an efficient systematic approach to be used as an alternative, or in addition, to costly, labor-intensive experiments in the characterization of V. cholerae clinical (and environmental) isolates.

Laboratory Techniques Used to Maintain and Differentiate Biotypes of Vibrio cholerae Clinical and Environmental Isolates

This manuscript describes proper Vibrio cholerae maintenance techniques in addition to a series of biochemical assays, collectively utilized for quick and reliable differentiation between clinical and environmental V. cholerae biotypes in a laboratory setting.

The aquatic Gram-negative bacterium Vibrio cholerae is the etiological agent of the infectious gastrointestinal disease cholera. Due to the global ...

Induction of Cellular Differentiation and Single Cell Imaging of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Swimmer and Swarmer Cells

The ability to study the intracellular localization of proteins is essential for the understanding of many cellular processes. In turn, this requires the ability to obtain single cells for fluorescence microscopy, which can be particularly challenging when imaging cells that exist within bacterial communities. For example, the human pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus exists as short rod-shaped swimmer cells in liquid conditions that upon surface contact differentiate into a subpopulation of highly elongated swarmer cells specialized for growth on solid surfaces. This paper presents a method to perform single cell fluorescence microscopy analysis of V. parahaemolyticus in its two differential states. This protocol very reproducibly induces differentiation of V. parahaemolyticus into a swarmer cell life-cycle and facilitates their proliferation over solid surfaces. The method produces flares of differentiated swarmer cells extending from the edge of the swarm-colony. Notably, at the very tip of the swarm-flares, swarmer cells exist in a single layer of cells, which allows for their easy transfer to a microscope slide and subsequent fluorescence microscopy imaging of single cells. Additionally, the workflow of image analysis for demographic representation of bacterial societies is presented. As a proof of principle, the analysis of the intracellular localization of chemotaxis signaling arrays in swimmer and swarmer cells of V. parahaemolyticus is described.

Induction of Cellular Differentiation and Single Cell Imaging of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Swimmer and Swarmer Cells

This protocol enables single cell microscopy of the differentially distinct Vibrio parahaemolyticus swimmer and swarmer cells. The method produces a population of swarmer cells easily available for single cell analysis and covers preparation of cell cultures, induction of swarmer differentiation, sample preparation, and image analysis.

The ability to study the intracellular localization of proteins is essential for the understanding of many cellular processes. In turn, this requires the ...

Ex Vivo Infection of Human Lymphoid Tissue and Female Genital Mucosa with Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 and Histoculture

Histocultures allow studying intercellular interactions within human tissues, and they can be employed to model host-pathogen interactions under controlled laboratory conditions. Ex vivo infection of human tissues with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), among other viruses, has been successfully used to investigate early disease pathogenesis, as well as a platform to test the efficacy and toxicity of antiviral drugs. In the present protocol, we explain how to process and infect with HIV-1 tissue explants from human tonsils and cervical mucosae, and maintain them in culture on top of gelatin sponges at the liquid-air interface for about two weeks. This non-polarized culture setting maximizes access to nutrients in culture medium and oxygen, although progressive loss of tissue integrity and functional architectures remains its main limitation. This method allows monitoring HIV-1 replication and pathogenesis using several techniques, including immunoassays, qPCR, and flow cytometry. Of importance, the physiologic variability between tissue donors, as well as between explants from different areas of the same specimen, may significantly affect experimental results. To ensure result reproducibility, it is critical to use an adequate number of explants, technical replicates, and donor-matched control conditions to normalize the results of the experimental treatments when compiling data from multiple experiments (i.e., conducted using tissue from different donors) for statistical analysis.

Ex Vivo Infection of Human Lymphoid Tissue and Female Genital Mucosa with Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 and Histoculture

Infection of human tissues with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) ex vivo provides a valuable 3D model of virus pathogenesis. Here, we describe a protocol to process and infect tissue specimens from human tonsils and female genital mucosae with HIV-1 and maintain them in culture at the liquid-air interface.

Histocultures allow studying intercellular interactions within human tissues, and they can be employed to model host-pathogen interactions under ...

Quantifying Vibrio cholerae Colonization and Diarrhea in the Adult Zebrafish Model

Vibrio cholerae is best known as the infectious agent that causes the human disease cholera. Outside the human host, V. cholerae primarily exists in the aquatic environment, where it interacts with a variety of higher aquatic species. Vertebrate fish are known to be an environmental host and are a potential V. cholerae reservoir in nature. Both V. cholerae and the teleost fish species Danio rerio, commonly known as zebrafish, originate from the Indian subcontinent, suggesting a long-standing interaction in aquatic environments. Zebrafish are an ideal model organism for studying many aspects of biology, including infectious diseases. Zebrafish can be easily and rapidly colonized by V. cholerae after exposure in water. Intestinal colonization by V. cholerae leads to the production of diarrhea and the excretion of replicated V. cholerae. These excreted bacteria can then go on to colonize new fish hosts. Here, we demonstrate how to assess V. cholerae-intestinal colonization in zebrafish and how to quantify V. cholerae-induced zebrafish diarrhea. The colonization model should be useful to researchers who are studying whether genes of interest may be important for host colonization and/or for environmental survival. The quantification of zebrafish diarrhea should be useful to researchers studying any intestinal pathogen who are interested in exploring zebrafish as a model system.

Quantifying Vibrio cholerae Colonization and Diarrhea in the Adult Zebrafish Model

Zebrafish are a natural Vibrio cholerae host and can be used to recapitulate and study the entire infectious cycle from colonization to transmission. Here, we demonstrate how to assess V. cholerae colonization levels and quantify diarrhea in zebrafish.

Vibrio cholerae is best known as the infectious agent that causes the human disease cholera. Outside the human host, V. cholerae primarily exists in the ...