Name: subcellular imaging of neuronal calcium handling in vivo
Uploaded: 2023-03-17T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Subcellular Imaging of Neuronal Calcium Handling In Vivo at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01- NS115947 awarded to F. Hoerndli). We would also like to thank Dr. Attila Stetak for the pAS1 plasmid.

1. Creating transgenic strains
<ol>
	<li>Using a cloning method of choice8,9, clone expression vectors to contain the Pflp-18 or Prig-3 promoter (for AVA-specific signal in the ventral nerve cord), followed by the Ca2+ indicator of choice, and then a 3&#39; UTR (see the discussion for more information)10. A list of plasmids and their sources can be found in Supplemental Table 1</stron...

<ol>
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The first consideration when implementing the method described involves the selection of a Ca2+ indicator with ideal characteristics for the given research question. Cytoplasmic Ca2+ indicators typically have a high affinity for Ca2+,&#160;and the sensitivity of these indicators to Ca2+ is inversely related to the kinetics (on/off rate)16,17. This means that either Ca2+ sensitivity or kinetics will need to be...

Calcium ions (Ca2+) are highly versatile carriers of information in many cell types. In neurons, Ca2+ is responsible for the activity-dependent release of neurotransmitters, the regulation of cytoskeletal motility, the fine-tuning of metabolic processes, as well as many other mechanisms required for proper neuronal maintenance and function1,2. To ensure effective intracellular signaling, neurons must maintain low basal Ca2+ levels in their cytoplasm3. This is accomplished by cooperative Ca2+ handling mechanisms, including the uptake of Ca2+ into organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. These processes, in addition to the arrangement of Ca2+-permeable ion channels in the plasma membrane, result in heterogeneous levels of cytoplasmic Ca2+ throughout the neuron.
Ca2+ heterogeneity during rest and neuronal activation allows for the diverse, location-specific regulation of Ca2+-dependent mechanisms1. One example of the concentration-specific effects of Ca2+ is the release of Ca2+ from the ER through inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) receptors. Low Ca2+ levels in combination with InsP3 are required for the opening of the receptor&#39;s calcium-permeable pore. Alternatively, high Ca2+ levels both directly and indirectly inhibit the receptor4. The importance of Ca2+ homeostasis for proper neuronal function is supported by evidence suggesting that disrupted intracellular Ca2+ handling and signaling is an early step in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders and natural aging5,6. Specifically, abnormal Ca2+ uptake and release by the ER and mitochondria are linked to the onset of neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Parkinson&#39;s disease, and Huntington&#39;s disease6,7.
The study of Ca2+ dyshomeostasis during natural aging or neurodegeneration requires the longitudinal observation of Ca2+ levels with subcellular resolution in a living, intact organism in which the native cellular architecture (i.e., the arrangement of synapses and distribution of ion channels) is maintained. To this end, this protocol provides guidance on the use of two readily available, genetically encoded Ca2+ sensors for recording Ca2+ dynamics in vivo with high spatial and temporal resolution. The representative results acquired using&#160;the described method in C. elegans demonstrate how the expression of Ca2+ indicators in the cytoplasm or mitochondrial matrix of single neurons can allow for the rapid acquisition of fluorescent images (up to 50 Hz) that illustrate the Ca2+ dynamics with the additional capability of discerning the Ca2+ levels within single spine-like structures and individual mitochondria.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>100x/1.40 Oil objective&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>&#160;UPlanSApo</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x/0.40 Objective&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>&#160;UPlanSApo</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>22 mm x 22 mm Cover glass&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR&#160;</td>
			<td>48366-227&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose SFR&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR&#160;</td>
			<td>J234-100G&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beam homogenizer</td>
			<td>Andor Technologies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Borealis upgrade to CSU-X1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CleanBench laboratory table&#160;</td>
			<td>TMC&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>With vibration control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable culture tubes</td>
			<td>VWR&#160;</td>
			<td>47729-572</td>
			<td>&#160;13 mm x 100 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Environmental chamber</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>3940</td>
			<td>Set to 20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter wheel or slider</td>
			<td>ASI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For 25 mm diameter filters</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FJH 185</td>
			<td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center&#160;</td>
			<td>FJH 185</td>
			<td>Worm strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FJH 597</td>
			<td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center</td>
			<td>FJH 597</td>
			<td>Worm strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFP bandpass emission filter&#160;</td>
			<td>Chroma&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>525 &#177; 50 nm&#160;(25 mm diameter)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ILE laser combiner&#160;</td>
			<td>Andor Technologies&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>4 laser lines&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ILE solid state 488 nm laser</td>
			<td>Andor Technologies&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>50 mW</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Version 1.52a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IX83 Spinning disk confocal microscope&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>With Yokogawa CSU-X1 spinning disc</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iXon Ultra EMCCD camera&#160;</td>
			<td>Andor Technologies&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low auto-fluorescence immersion oil&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus&#160;</td>
			<td>Z-81226</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MetaMorph&#160;</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Version 7.10.1&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope control box</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>IX3-CBH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Muscimol&#160;</td>
			<td>MP Biomedical&#160;/ Sigma</td>
			<td>02195336-CF&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pAS1</td>
			<td>AddGene</td>
			<td>194970</td>
			<td>Plasmid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pBSKS</td>
			<td>Stratagene</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pCT61</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Plasmid available from Hoerndli/Maricq lab upon request</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pJM23</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Plasmid available from Hoerndli/Maricq lab upon request</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pKK1&#160;</td>
			<td>AddGene&#160;</td>
			<td>194969</td>
			<td>Plasmid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybead microspheres&#160;</td>
			<td>Polysciences Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>00876-15</td>
			<td>&#160;0.094 &#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stability chamber</td>
			<td>Norlake Scientific</td>
			<td>NSRI241WSW/8H</td>
			<td>Set to 15 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stage controller</td>
			<td>ASI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>With filter wheel control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Standard microscope slide</td>
			<td>Premiere</td>
			<td>9108W-E</td>
			<td>75 mm x 25 mm x 1 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Touch panel controller</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>I3-TPC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Z-drift corrector&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>IX3-ZDC2</td>
		</tr>
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</table>

subcellular imaging of neuronal calcium handling in vivo

Calcium (Ca2+) imaging has been largely used to examine neuronal activity, but it is becoming increasingly clear that subcellular Ca2+ handling is a crucial component of intracellular signaling. The visualization of subcellular Ca2+ dynamics in vivo,&#160;where neurons can be studied in their native, intact circuitry, has proven technically challenging in complex nervous systems. The transparency and relatively simple nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans enable the cell-specific expression and in vivo visualization of fluorescent tags and indicators. Among these are fluorescent indicators that have been modified for use in the cytoplasm as well as various subcellular compartments, such as the mitochondria. This protocol enables non-ratiometric Ca2+ imaging in vivo with a subcellular resolution that permits the analysis of Ca2+ dynamics down to the level of individual dendritic spines and mitochondria. Here, two available genetically encoded indicators with different Ca2+ affinities are used to demonstrate the use of this protocol for measuring relative Ca2+ levels within the cytoplasm or mitochondrial matrix in a single pair of excitatory interneurons (AVA). Together with the genetic manipulations and longitudinal observations possible in C. elegans, this imaging protocol may be useful for answering questions regarding how Ca2+ handling regulates neuronal function and plasticity.

These two protocols enable the rapid acquisition of differential Ca2+ levels within the subcellular regions and organelles of individual neurites in vivo with high spatial resolution. The first protocol allows for the measurement of cytoplasmic Ca2+ with high temporal and spatial resolution. This is demonstrated here using the cell-specific expression of GCaMP6f in the glutamatergic AVA command interneurons15, whose neurites run the entire length of the ventral nerve...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Subcellular Imaging of Neuronal Calcium Handling In Vivo at JoVE.com

Subcellular Imaging of Neuronal Calcium Handling In Vivo

The current methods describe a non-ratiometric approach for high-resolution, sub-compartmental calcium imaging in vivo in Caenorhabditis elegans using readily available genetically encoded calcium indicators.

Subcellular Imaging of Neuronal Calcium Handling In Vivo

Calcium (Ca2+) imaging has been largely used to examine neuronal activity, but it is becoming increasingly clear that subcellular Ca2+ handling is a ...

This technique can be used to advance our understanding of calcium handling in neurons, and how compartmentalized calcium can regulate different mechanisms important for neuronal function in vivo. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows for higher resolution rapid in vivo imaging under physiological conditions in C.elegans that may be combined with other fluorescent tools. This technique could provide insights into mechanism regulating calcium signaling in neurons in many different contexts.For example, during aging, neuronal injury, and neurodegeneration. Demonstrating this procedure will be Ennis Deihl, research technician. Kaz Knight, a PhD candidate, and Rachel Doser, a postdoctoral researcher from my lab.Begin by cloning expression vectors that contain a promoter followed by a calcium indicator, and three prime UTR of choice. Create transgenic C.elegans strains by microinjection of a DNA mix containing the rescue DNA Lin-15 plus in the calcium indicator transgene into the gonad of a one-day-old adult C.elegans. Maintain the injected parent worms at 20 degrees Celsius until the F1 progeny reach adulthood.Select transgenic adults by screening for the absence of the multi-vulva phenotype. That indicates expression of the extra chromosomal array containing the calcium indicator. Clonally passage adult F1 progeny that do not have the multi-vulva phenotype.Perform experiments on subsequent generations of the transgenic strains with an optimal expression of the calcium indicator. Use a microscope capable of long-term Time-lapse imaging. Locate the worm under a low magnification objective and then switch to a high magnification objective to localize the neurons.Acquire the images using an ultrasensitive camera capable of rapid image acquisition at more than 50 FPS. Next, use a standard emission filter for the calcium indicator. Add a Z-drift corrector for the acquisition of image streams longer than 10 seconds.In a 13-by-100-millimeter glass culture tube prepare three milliliters of 10%agar by dissolving molecular grade agar in M9 and microwave for several seconds. To make the agar pads, first, prepare two slides by adding two layers of laboratory tape. Then place a microscope slide between the two slides.Cut the tip of a 1000-microliter pipette tip and use it to pipette a small drop of agar onto the center of the cover slip. Flatten the agar by pressing another slide down on top of the agar. After cooling, cut the agar into a small disc using the opening of a 10-milliliter tube, and then remove the surrounding agar.Next, prepare the worm rolling solution by dissolving muscimol powder in M9 to create a 30-millimolar stock. Dilute the stock in a one-to-one ratio with polystyrene beads to make the rolling solution. To position the worm for imaging, first, place 1.6 microliters of the rolling solution onto the center of the agar pad.Then using a preferred worm pick, transfer a worm of the desired age into the rolling solution on the agar pad. Wait for about five minutes for the muscimol to reduce the worm movement, and then drop a 22-by-22-millimeter cover slip on top of the agar pad. For imaging neurites in the ventral nerve cord, roll the worm by slightly sliding the cover slip.To mount the worm on the microscope, place a drop of immersion oil onto the cover slip. Find the worm using a low magnification objective in brightfield. Then switch to 100x objective and locate the AVA neurite using the illumination of the GCaMP or mito GCaMP with the 488-nanometer imaging laser.For in vivo GCaMP imaging, adjust the imaging laser in acquisition settings until the basil GCaMP fluorescence is in the mid range of the dynamic range of the camera and set the exposure time to 20 milliseconds. After the AVA neurite is located using the GCaMP fluorescence at 100 times magnification, set the Z-drift corrector, and initiate continuous autofocusing. Manually correct the focal plane as needed before imaging.Acquire a stream of images at 100 times magnification. Using this protocol, cytoplasmic calcium was measured with high temporal and spatial resolution. The cell specific expression of GCaMP6F in the glutamatergic AVA command interneurons revealed a directional propagation of calcium influx.The subcellular quantification of GCaMP6F fluorescence showed that the onset of calcium influx was delayed in a portion of the neurite located only 10 micrometers away. Also, dendritic spine-like structures found along the AVA neurite showed flashes in GCaMP6F fluorescence that occurred independently of neurite activation and did not lead to a propagation of calcium influx. Further, the relative calcium levels were measured in the individual mitochondria in single neurites using a worm strain with a AVA specific expression of the mitochondrial matrix localized calcium indicator mito GCaMP.The results showed the synchronous uptake of a relatively large amount of calcium into a subset of mitochondria. Specifically, the calcium uptake into some mitochondria was synchronized, whereas neighboring mitochondria did not appear to take up calcium. Similarly, subsets of mitochondria showed rapid uptake and release of small amounts of calcium.This also appeared to be synchronous but only for a subset of mitochondria. Speed and fine manipulations are essential for positioning animals and retaining neuronal function. Animal health is also paramount.Even a little starvation is problematic. The hardest part to learn is the rapid orientation of the animals for confocal microscopy without damage. My advice is a lot of practice and good controls.This protocol could be applied to experiments where calcium is released from other subcellular locations in neurons, other neurons or cells other than neurons in C.elegans. Because this approach in C.elegans leaves animals intact, it is possible to address questions about regulation of subcellular calcium handling in vivo in single neurons of a complete nervous system.

subcellular-imaging-of-neuronal-calcium-handling-in-vivo

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, well-characterized nervous system allows identification and fluorescence imaging of any neuron within the intact animal. Simple immobilization techniques with minimal impact on the animal's physiology allow extended time-lapse imaging. The development of genetically-encoded calcium sensitive fluorophores such as cameleon 1 and GCaMP 2 allow in vivo imaging of neuronal calcium relating both cell physiology and neuronal activity. Numerous transgenic strains expressing these fluorophores in specific neurons are readily available or can be constructed using well-established techniques. Here, we describe detailed procedures for measuring calcium dynamics within a single neuron in vivo using both GCaMP and cameleon. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of both as well as various methods of sample preparation (animal immobilization) and image analysis. Finally, we present results from two experiments: 1) Using GCaMP to measure the sensory response of a specific neuron to an external electrical field and 2) Using cameleon to measure the physiological calcium response of a neuron to traumatic laser damage. Calcium imaging techniques such as these are used extensively in C. elegans and have been extended to measurements in freely moving animals, multiple neurons simultaneously and comparison across genetic backgrounds. C. elegans presents a robust and flexible system for in vivo neuronal imaging with advantages over other model systems in technical simplicity and cost.

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

With its small transparent body, well-documented neuroanatomy and a host of amenable genetic techniques and reagents, C. elegans makes an ideal model organism for in vivo neuronal imaging using relatively simple, low-cost techniques. Here we describe single neuron imaging within intact adult animals using genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicators.

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism  for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, ...

In Vivo Imaging of Dauer-specific Neuronal Remodeling in C. elegans

The mechanisms controlling stress-induced phenotypic plasticity in animals are frequently complex and difficult to study in vivo. A classic example of stress-induced plasticity is the dauer stage of C. elegans. Dauers are an alternative developmental larval stage formed under conditions of low concentrations of bacterial food and high concentrations of a dauer pheromone. Dauers display extensive developmental and behavioral plasticity. For example, a set of four inner-labial quadrant (IL2Q) neurons undergo extensive reversible remodeling during dauer formation. Utilizing the well-known environmental pathways regulating dauer entry, a previously established method for the production of crude dauer pheromone from large-scale liquid nematode cultures is demonstrated. With this method, a concentration of 50,000 - 75,000 nematodes/ml of liquid culture is sufficient to produce a highly potent crude dauer pheromone. The crude pheromone potency is determined by a dose-response bioassay. Finally, the methods used for in vivo time-lapse imaging of the IL2Qs during dauer formation are described.

In Vivo Imaging of Dauer-specific Neuronal Remodeling in C. elegans

Following exposure to specific environmental stressors, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans undergoes extensive phenotypic plasticity to enter into a stress-resistant &#8216;dauer&#8217; juvenile stage. We present methods for the controlled induction and imaging of neuroplasticity during dauer.

The mechanisms controlling stress-induced phenotypic plasticity in animals are frequently complex and difficult to study in vivo. A classic example of ...

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new method of Ca2+-imaging using the bioluminescent reporter GFP-aequorin (GA) has been developed. This new technique relies on the fusion of the GFP and aequorin genes, producing a molecule capable of binding calcium and&#160;&#8212; with the addition of its cofactor coelenterazine &#8212; emitting bright light that can be monitored through a photon collector. Transgenic lines carrying the GFP-aequorin gene have been generated for both mice and Drosophila. In Drosophila, the GFP-aequorin gene has been placed under the control of the GAL4/UAS binary expression system allowing for targeted expression and imaging within the brain. This method has subsequently been shown to be capable of detecting both inward Ca2+-transients and Ca2+-released from inner stores. Most importantly it allows for a greater duration in continuous recording, imaging at greater depths within the brain, and recording at high temporal resolutions (up to 8.3 msec). Here we present the basic method for using bioluminescent imaging to record and analyze Ca2+-activity within the mushroom bodies, a structure central to learning and memory in the fly brain.

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Here we present a novel Ca2+-imaging approach using a bioluminescent reporter. This approach uses a fused construct GFP-aequorin which binds to Ca2+ and emits light, eliminating the need for light excitation. Significantly this method permits long continuous imaging, access to deep brain structures and high temporal resolution.

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new ...

Prolonged Incubation of Acute Neuronal Tissue for Electrophysiology and Calcium-imaging

Acute neuronal tissue preparations, brain slices and retinal wholemount, can usually only be maintained for 6 - 8 h following dissection. This limits the experimental time, and increases the number of animals that are utilized per study. This limitation specifically impacts protocols such as calcium imaging that require prolonged pre-incubation with bath-applied dyes. Exponential bacterial growth within 3 - 4 h after slicing is tightly correlated with a decrease in tissue health. This study describes a method for&#160;limiting the proliferation of bacteria in acute preparations to maintain viable neuronal tissue for prolonged periods of time (&#62;24 h) without the need for antibiotics, sterile procedures, or tissue culture media containing growth factors. By cycling the extracellular fluid through UV irradiation and keeping the tissue in a custom holding chamber at 15 - 16 &#176;C, the tissue shows no difference in electrophysiological properties, or calcium signaling through intracellular calcium dyes at &#62;24 h postdissection. These methods will not only extend experimental time for those using acute neuronal tissue, but will reduce the number of animals required to complete experimental goals, and will set a gold standard for acute neuronal tissue incubation.

Once removed from the body, neuronal tissue is greatly affected by environmental conditions, leading to eventual degradation of the tissue after 6 - 8 h. Using a unique incubation method, which closely monitors and regulates the extracellular environment of the tissue, tissue viability can be significantly extended for &#62;24 h.

Acute neuronal tissue preparations, brain slices and retinal wholemount, can usually only be maintained for 6 - 8 h following dissection. This limits the ...

Two-photon Calcium Imaging in Neuronal Dendrites in Brain Slices

Calcium (Ca2+) imaging is a powerful tool to investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of intracellular Ca2+ signals in neuronal dendrites. Ca2+ fluctuations can occur through a variety of membrane and intracellular mechanisms and play a crucial role in the induction of synaptic plasticity and regulation of dendritic excitability. Hence, the ability to record different types of Ca2+ signals in dendritic branches is valuable for groups studying how dendrites integrate information. The advent of two-photon microscopy has made such studies significantly easier by solving the problems inherent to imaging in live tissue, such as light scattering and photodamage. Moreover, through combination of conventional electrophysiological techniques with two-photon Ca2+ imaging, it is possible to investigate local Ca2+ fluctuations in neuronal dendrites in parallel with recordings of synaptic activity in soma. Here, we describe how to use this method to study the dynamics of local Ca2+ transients (CaTs) in dendrites of GABAergic inhibitory interneurons. The method can be also applied to studying dendritic Ca2+ signaling in different neuronal types in acute brain slices.

We present a method combining whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and two-photon imaging to record Ca2+ transients in neuronal dendrites in acute brain slices.

Calcium (Ca2+) imaging is a powerful tool to investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of intracellular Ca2+ signals in neuronal dendrites. Ca2+ ...

In Vivo Calcium Imaging of Lateral-line Hair Cells in Larval Zebrafish

Sensory hair cells are mechanoreceptors found in the inner ear that are required for hearing and balance. Hair cells are activated in response to sensory stimuli that mechanically deflect apical protrusions called hair bundles. Deflection opens mechanotransduction (MET) channels in hair bundles, leading to an influx of cations, including calcium. This cation influx depolarizes the cell and opens voltage-gated calcium channels located basally at the hair-cell presynapse. In mammals, hair cells are encased in bone, and it is challenging to functionally assess these activities in vivo. In contrast, larval zebrafish are transparent and possess an externally located lateral-line organ that contains hair cells. These hair cells are functionally and structurally similar to mammalian hair cells and can be functionally assessed in vivo. This article outlines a technique that utilizes a genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI), GCaMP6s, to measure stimulus-evoked calcium signals in zebrafish lateral-line hair cells. GCaMP6s can be used, along with confocal imaging, to measure in vivo calcium signals at the apex and base of lateral-line hair cells. These signals provide a real-time, quantifiable readout of both mechanosensation- and presynapse-dependent calcium activities within these hair cells. These calcium signals also provide important functional information regarding how hair cells detect and transmit sensory stimuli. Overall, this technique generates useful data about relative changes in calcium activity in vivo. It is less well-suited for quantification of the absolute magnitude of calcium changes. This in vivo technique is sensitive to motion artifacts. A reasonable amount of practice and skill are required for proper positioning, immobilization, and stimulation of larvae. Ultimately, when properly executed, the protocol outlined in this article provides a powerful way to collect valuable information about the activity of hair-cells in their natural, fully integrated states within a live animal.

The zebrafish is a model system that has many valuable features including optical clarity, rapid external development, and, of particular importance to the field of hearing and balance, externally located sensory hair cells. This article outlines how transgenic zebrafish can be used to assay both hair-cell mechanosensation and presynaptic function in toto.

Sensory hair cells are mechanoreceptors found in the inner ear that are required for hearing and balance. Hair cells are activated in response to sensory ...

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. Learning-induced changes in synaptic transmission are often distributed across many neurons and levels of processing in the brain. Therefore, methods to visualize learning-dependent synaptic plasticity across neurons are needed. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster represents a particularly favorable model organism to study neuronal circuits underlying learning. The protocol presented here demonstrates a way in which the processes underlying the formation of associative olfactory memories, i.e., synaptic activity and their changes, can be monitored in vivo. Using the broad array of genetic tools available in Drosophila, it is possible to specifically express genetically encoded calcium indicators in determined cell populations and even single cells. By fixing a fly in place, and opening the head capsule, it is possible to visualize calcium dynamics in these cells whilst delivering olfactory stimuli. Additionally, we demonstrate a set-up in which the fly can be subjected, simultaneously, to electric shocks to the body. This provides a system in which flies can undergo classical olfactory conditioning - whereby a previously na&#239;ve odor is learned to be associated with electric shock punishment - at the same time as the representation of this odor (and other untrained odors) is observed in the brain via two-photon microscopy. Our lab has previously reported the generation of synaptically localized calcium sensors, which enables one to confine the fluorescent calcium signals to pre- or postsynaptic compartments. Two-photon microscopy provides a way to spatially resolve fine structures. We exemplify this by focusing on neurons integrating information from the mushroom body, a higher-order center of the insect brain. Overall, this protocol provides a method to examine the synaptic connections between neurons whose activity is modulated as a result of olfactory learning.

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Here we present a protocol with which pre- and/or postsynaptic calcium can be visualized in the context of Drosophila learning and memory. In vivo calcium imaging using synaptically localized calcium sensors is combined with a classical olfactory conditioning paradigm such that the synaptic plasticity underlying this type of associative learning may be determined.

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. ...

In Vitro Wedge Slice Preparation for Mimicking In Vivo Neuronal Circuit Connectivity

In vitro slice electrophysiology techniques measure single-cell activity with precise electrical and temporal resolution. Brain slices must be relatively thin to properly visualize and access neurons for patch-clamping or imaging, and in vitro examination of brain circuitry is limited to only what is physically present in the acute slice. To maintain the benefits of in vitro slice experimentation while preserving a larger portion of presynaptic nuclei, we developed a novel slice preparation. This &#8220;wedge slice&#8221; was designed for patch-clamp electrophysiology recordings to characterize the diverse monaural, sound-driven inputs to medial olivocochlear (MOC) neurons in the brainstem. These neurons receive their primary afferent excitatory and inhibitory inputs from neurons activated by stimuli in the contralateral ear and corresponding cochlear nucleus (CN). An asymmetrical brain slice was designed which is thickest in the rostro-caudal domain at the lateral edge of one hemisphere and then thins towards the lateral edge of the opposite hemisphere. This slice contains, on the thick side, the auditory nerve root conveying information about auditory stimuli to the brain, the intrinsic CN circuitry, and both the disynaptic excitatory and trisynaptic inhibitory afferent pathways that converge on contralateral MOC neurons. Recording is performed from MOC neurons on the thin side of the slice, where they are visualized using DIC optics for typical patch-clamp experiments. Direct stimulation of the auditory nerve is performed as it enters the auditory brainstem, allowing for intrinsic CN circuit activity and synaptic plasticity to occur at synapses upstream of MOC neurons. With this technique, one can mimic in vivo circuit activation as closely as possible within the slice. This wedge slice preparation is applicable to other brain circuits where circuit analyses would benefit from preservation of upstream connectivity and long-range inputs, in combination with the technical advantages of in vitro slice physiology.

Integration of diverse synaptic inputs to neurons is best measured in a preparation that preserves all pre-synaptic nuclei for natural timing and circuit plasticity, but brain slices typically sever many connections. We developed a modified brain slice to mimic in vivo circuit activity while maintaining in vitro experimentation capability.

In vitro slice electrophysiology techniques measure single-cell activity with precise electrical and temporal resolution. Brain slices must be relatively ...

In vivo Calcium Imaging of Mouse Geniculate Ganglion Neuron Responses to Taste Stimuli

Within the last ten years, advances in genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) have promoted a revolution in in vivo functional imaging. Using calcium as a proxy for neuronal activity, these techniques provide a way to monitor the responses of individual cells within large neuronal ensembles to a variety of stimuli in real time. We, and others, have applied these techniques to image the responses of individual geniculate ganglion neurons to taste stimuli applied to the tongues of live anesthetized mice. The geniculate ganglion is comprised of the cell bodies of gustatory neurons innervating the anterior tongue and palate as well as some somatosensory neurons innervating the pinna of the ear. Imaging the taste-evoked responses of individual geniculate ganglion neurons with GCaMP has provided important information about the tuning profiles of these neurons in wild-type mice as well as a way to detect peripheral taste miswiring phenotypes in genetically manipulated mice. Here we demonstrate the surgical procedure to expose the geniculate ganglion, GCaMP fluorescence image acquisition, initial steps for data analysis, and troubleshooting. This technique can be used with transgenically encoded GCaMP, or with AAV-mediated GCaMP expression, and can be modified to image particular genetic subsets of interest (i.e., Cre-mediated GCaMP expression). Overall, in vivo calcium imaging of geniculate ganglion neurons is a powerful technique for monitoring the activity of peripheral gustatory neurons and provides complementary information to more traditional whole-nerve chorda tympani recordings or taste behavior assays.

Here we present how to expose the geniculate ganglion of a live, anesthetized laboratory mouse and how to use calcium imaging to measure the responses of ensembles of these neurons to taste stimuli, allowing for multiple trials with different stimulants. This allows for in depth comparisons of which neurons respond to which tastants.

Within the last ten years, advances in genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) have promoted a revolution in in vivo functional imaging. Using ...

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

Inferior olive (IO), a nucleus in the ventral medulla, is the only source of climbing fibers that form one of the two input pathways entering the cerebellum. IO has long been proposed to be crucial for motor control and its activity is currently considered to be at the center of many hypotheses of both motor and cognitive functions of the cerebellum. While its physiology and function have been relatively well studied on single-cell level in vitro, presently there are no reports on the organization of the IO network activity in living animals. This is largely due to the extremely challenging anatomical location of the IO, making it difficult to subject to conventional fluorescent imaging methods, where an optic path must be created through the entire brain located dorsally to the region of interest.
Here we describe an alternative method for obtaining state-of-the-art -level calcium imaging data from the IO network. The method takes advantage of the extreme ventral location of the IO and involves a surgical procedure for inserting a gradient-refractive index (GRIN) lens through the neck viscera to come into contact with the ventral surface of the calcium sensor GCaMP6s-expressing IO in anesthetized mice. A representative calcium imaging recording is shown to demonstrate the feasibility to record IO neuron activity after the surgery. While this is a non-survival surgery and the recordings must be conducted under anesthesia, it avoids damage to life-critical brainstem nuclei and allows conducting large variety of experiments investigating spatiotemporal activity patterns and input integration in the IO. This procedure with modifications could be used for recordings in other, adjacent regions of the ventral brainstem.

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

We present a protocol to expose the brainstem of adult mouse from the ventral side. By using a gradient-refractive index lens with a miniature microscope, calcium imaging can be used to examine the activity of inferior olive neural somata in vivo.