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Here, we present detailed methods for the preparation and evaluation of the nasal self-assembled nanoemulsion tumor vaccine in vitro and in vivo.
Epitope peptides have attracted widespread attention in the field of tumor vaccines because of their safety, high specificity, and convenient production; in particular, some MHC I-restricted epitopes can induce effective cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity to clear tumor cells. Additionally, nasal administration is an effective and safe delivery technique for tumor vaccines due to its convenience and improved patient compliance. However, epitope peptides are unsuitable for nasal delivery because of their poor immunogenicity and lack of delivery efficiency. Nanoemulsions (NEs) are thermodynamically stable systems that can be loaded with antigens and delivered directly to the nasal mucosal surface. Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val (IKVAV) is the core pentapeptide of laminin, an integrin-binding peptide expressed by human respiratory epithelial cells. In this study, an intranasal self-assembled epitope peptide NE tumor vaccine containing the synthetic peptide IKVAV-OVA257-264 (I-OVA) was prepared by a low-energy emulsification method. The combination of IKVAV and OVA257-264 can enhance antigen uptake by nasal mucosal epithelial cells. Here, we establish a protocol to study the physicochemical characteristics by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS); stability in the presence of mucin protein; toxicity by examining the cell viability of BEAS-2B cells and the nasal and lung tissues of C57BL/6 mice; cellular uptake by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM); release profiles by imaging small animals in vivo; and the protective and therapeutic effect of the vaccine by using an E.G7 tumor-bearing model. We anticipate that the protocol will provide technical and theoretical clues for the future development of novel T cell epitope peptide mucosal vaccines.
As one of the most critical public health innovations, vaccines play a key role in fighting the global burden of human disease1. For example, at present, more than 120 candidate vaccines for COVID-19 diseases are being tested, some of which have been approved in many countries2. Recent reports state that cancer vaccines have effectively improved the progress of clinical cancer treatments because they direct the immune system of cancer patients to recognize antigens as foreign to the body3. Moreover, multiple T cell epitopes located inside or outside tumor cells can be used to design peptide vaccines, which have shown advantages in the treatment of metastatic cancers because of the lack of the significant toxicity associated with radiotherapy and chemotherapy4,5. Since the mid-1990s, preclinical and clinical trials for tumor treatment have been conducted mainly using antigen peptide vaccines, but few vaccines exhibit an adequate therapeutic effect on cancer patients6. Furthermore, cancer vaccines with peptide epitopes have poor immunogenicity and insufficient delivery efficiency, which may be due to the rapid degradation of extracellular peptides that diffuse rapidly from the site of administration, which leads to insufficient antigen uptake by immune cells7. Therefore, it is necessary to overcome these obstacles with vaccine delivery technology.
OVA257-264, the MHC class I-binding 257-264 epitope expressed as a fusion protein, is a frequently used model epitope8. In addition, OVA257-264 is crucial to the adaptive immune response against tumors, which depends on the cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response. It is mediated by antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in the tumor, which are induced by the OVA257-264 peptide. It is characterized by insufficient granzyme B, which is released by cytotoxic T cells, leading to the apoptosis of target cells8. However, free OVA257-264 peptide administration may induce little CTL activity because the uptake of these antigens occurs in nonspecific cells rather than antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The deficiency of appropriate immune stimulation results in CTL activity5. Therefore, the induction of efficacious CTL activity demands considerable advancement.
Owing to the barrier provided by epithelial cells and the continuous secretion of mucus, vaccine antigens are rapidly removed from the nasal mucous9,10. Developing an efficient vaccine vector that can pass through the mucosal tissue is crucial because the antigen-presenting cells are situated under the mucosal epithelium9. Intranasal injection of vaccines theoretically induces mucosal immunity to fight mucosal infection11. In addition, nasal delivery is an effective and safe administration method for vaccines due to its convenience, the avoidance of intestinal administration, and improved patient compliancy7. Therefore, nasal delivery is a good means of administration for the novel peptide epitope nanovaccine.
Several synthetic biomaterials have been devised to combine epitopes of cell-tissue and cell-cell interactions. Certain bioactive proteins, such as Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val (IKVAV), have been introduced as part of the structure of the hydrogel to confer bioactivity12. This peptide likely contributes to cell attachment, migration, and outgrowth13 and binds integrins α3β1 and α6β1 to interact with different cancer cell types. IKVAV is a cell adhesion peptide derived from the laminin basement membrane protein α1 chain that was originally used to model the neural microenvironment and cause the neuronal differentiation14. Therefore, finding an efficient delivery vehicle for this novel vaccine is important for disease control.
Recently reported emulsion systems, such as W805EC and MF59, have also been compounded for the nasal cavity delivery of inactivated influenza vaccine or recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen and illustrated to trigger both mucosal and systemic immunity15. Nanoemulsions (NEs) have the advantages of easy administration and convenient co-formation with effective adjuvants compared with particulate mucosal delivery systems16. Nanoemulsion vaccines have been reported to alter the allergic phenotype in a sustained manner different from traditional desensitization, which results in long-term suppressive effects17. Others reported that nanoemulsions combined with Mtb-specific immunodominant antigens could induce potent mucosal cell responses and confer significant protection18. Therefore, a novel intranasal self-assembled nanovaccine with the synthetic peptide IKVAV-OVA257-264 (I-OVA, the peptide consisting of IKVAV bound to OVA257-264) was designed. It is important to assess this novel nanovaccine systematically.
The purpose of this protocol is to systematically evaluate the physicochemical characteristics, toxicity, and stability of the nanovaccine, detect whether antigen uptake and protective and therapeutic effects are enhanced using technical means, and elaborate on the main experimental contents. In this study, we established a series of protocols to study the physicochemical characteristics and stability, determine the magnitude of toxicity of the I-OVA NE to BEAS-2B cells by CCK-8, and observe the antigen-presenting ability of BEAS-2B cells to the vaccine using confocal microscopy, evaluate the release profiles of this novel nanovaccine in vivo and in vitro, and detect the protective and therapeutic effect of this vaccine by using an E.G7-OVA tumor-bearing mouse model.
The animal experiments were conducted in accordance with the Laboratory Animal—Guideline for ethical review of animal welfare (GB/T 35892-2018) and were approved by the Laboratory Animal Welfare and Ethics Committee of the Third Military Medical University. The mice were euthanized by an intraperitoneal injection of 100 mg/kg of 1% sodium pentobarbital.
1. Preparation of the I-OVA NE
2. Physicochemical characterization and stability
NOTE: Assess the droplet size distribution, zeta potential, and other physicochemical data of the I-OVA NE vaccine following steps 2.1-2.3; perform morphological characterization of the I-OVA NE vaccine following steps 2.4-2.7; and examine the 3D structure of the I-OVA NE vaccine following steps 2.8-2.9.
3. In vitro and in vivo toxicity assays
NOTE: The in vitro toxicity of the I-OVA NE vaccine was assessed following steps 3.1-3.9, and the in vivo toxicity of the I-OVA NE vaccine was assessed following steps 3.10-3.13.
4. In vitro cellular uptake
5. In vivo release
6. In vivo antitumor efficacy
7. Statistical analysis
According to the protocol, we completed the preparation and in vitro and in vivo experimental evaluation of the nasal tumor nanovaccine delivery. TEM, AFM, and DLS are effective means for the assessment of the basic characteristics of the surface zeta potential and the particle size of the nanovaccine (Figure 1). BEAS-2B epithelial cells are a useful screening model for the in vitro toxicity testing of nasal vaccines (Figure 2A). The m...
Nanovaccines functionalized with immunocyte membranes have great advantages in disease-targeted therapy, and the side effects are minimized by properties such as unique tumor tropism, the identification of specific targets, prolonged circulation, enhanced intercellular interactions, and low systemic toxicity. They can also be easily integrated with other treatment modules to treat cancers cooperatively16,20. Desirable attributes can be obtained by controllingphys...
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
This study was supported by No. 31670938, 32070924, 32000651 of the National Natural Science Foundation Program of China, No. 2014jcyjA0107 and No. 2019jcyjA-msxmx0159 of the Natural Science Foundation Project Program of Chongqing, No. 2020XBK24 and No. 2020XBK26 of the Army Medical University Special projects, and No. 202090031021 and No. 202090031035 of National Innovation and Entrepreneurship Program for college students.
Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
96-well plates | Corning Incorporated, USA | CLS3922 | |
Bio-Rad 6.0 microplate reader | Bio-Rad Laboratories Incorporated Limited Co., CA, USA | Bio-Rad 6.0 | |
CCK-8 kits | Dojindo, Japan | CK04 | |
Centrifuge 5810 R | Eppendorf, Germany | 5811000398 | |
DAPI | Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA | D9542 | |
fetal bovine serum (FBS) | Hyclone (Life Technology, USA) | SH30088.03 | |
FITC-labeled I-OVA | Shanghai Botai Biotechnology Co., Ltd. | NA | |
HF 90/240 Incubator | Heal Force, Switzerland | NA | |
HPLC | Shanghai Botai Biotechology Co., Ltd. | E2695 | |
Inverted Microscope | Nikon,Japan | DSZ5000X | |
IPC-208 | Chong Qing University, China | NA | |
IVIS system | Caliper Life Science Limited Company | NA | |
JEM-1230 TEM | JEOL Limited Company of Japan | 1230 TEM | |
Malvern NANO ZS | Malvern Instruments Ltd., UK | NA | |
MPLA | Invivogen Lit. Co. | tlrl-mpla | |
Neomycin Sulfate Ointment | Shanghai CP General Pharmaceutical Co. , Ltd. | H31022262 | |
OVA257–264 | Shanghai Botai Biotechnology Co., Ltd. | NA | |
RPMI 1640 medium | Hyclone (Life Technology, USA) | SH30809.01 | |
Synthetic peptide (I-OVA) conjugation of IKVAV-PA | Shanghai Botai Biotechnology Co., Ltd. | NA | |
Zeiss LSM800 laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscope | Zeiss, Germany | Zeiss LSM800 |
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