作者感谢Ann Lavanway的成像支持。作者感谢Wieschaus实验室和De Renzis实验室共享试剂，并感谢Bloomington果蝇种群中心共享苍蝇种群。这项研究得到了NIGMS ESI-MIRA R35GM128745和美国癌症协会机构研究资助 #IRG-82-003-33的支持。

1.设置遗传杂交并准备卵子收集杯
<ol><li>从光遗传系UASp-CIBNpm（I）中选择雌性苍蝇（处女）;UASp-CRY2-Rho1DN-mCherry（III）在体视显微镜下的CO2 垫上，并与来自母体GAL4驱动线67 Sqh-mCherry的雄性苍蝇建立杂交;15 E-钙粘蛋白-GFP。 注意：67和15代表插入第二（II）和第三（III）染色体的母体-微管蛋白-GAL4，分别为52。该协议中使用的GAL4系还表达mCherry标记的肌球蛋白调...

果蝇中 Rho1 介导的肌动球蛋白收缩性的光遗传学抑制

该协议描述了光遗传学和激光消融的组合使用，以在肌动肌蛋白收缩性失活后立即探测组织张力的变化。这里描述的光遗传学工具利用Rho1（Rho1DN）的主要阴性形式来急性抑制内源性Rho1和Rho1依赖性肌动肌素收缩力。先前在果蝇腹侧沟形成背景下对Opto-Rho1DN的表征表明，该工具通过同时肌球蛋白失活和肌动蛋白拆卸来介导顶端肌动肌蛋白收缩力的快速失活非常有效41。特别是...

肌动蛋白收缩力是非肌肉肌球蛋白II（以下简称“肌球蛋白”）对F-肌动蛋白网络施加的收缩力，是改变细胞形状和驱动组织水平形态发生的最重要力量之一1,2。例如，上皮细胞顶端结构域肌动蛋白收缩性的激活导致顶端收缩，这促进了各种形态发生过程，包括上皮折叠、细胞挤出、分层和伤口愈合 3,4,5,6,7.肌球蛋白的活化需要其调节轻链的磷酸化。这种修饰减轻了肌球蛋白分子的抑制构象，使它们能够形成两端具有多个头部结构域的双极肌球蛋白丝束。双极肌球蛋白丝驱动肌动蛋白丝的反平行运动并产生收缩力1,8,9。
进化上保守的Rho家族小GTP酶RhoA（果蝇中的Rho1）在各种细胞环境中的肌动肌蛋白收缩力的激活中起核心作用10,11。Rho1通过结合GTP（活性形式）或GDP（非活性形式）作为双分子开关起作用12。GTP 或 GDP 结合的 Rho1 之间的循环由其 GTP 酶激活蛋白 （GAP） 和鸟嘌呤核苷酸交换因子 （GEF） 调节13。全球环境基金的作用是促进国内生产总值换取全球通用技术伙伴关系，从而激活Rho1活动。另一方面，GAPs增强了Rho1的GTP酶活性，从而使Rho1失活。活化的Rho1通过与下游效应物Rho相关激酶（Rok）和Diaphanous14相互作用并激活肌动肌肽收缩力。Rok通过磷酸化肌球蛋白15的调节轻链来诱导肌球蛋白活化和肌动球蛋白收缩力。此外，Rok还抑制肌球蛋白调节轻链磷酸酶，从而进一步促进肌球蛋白丝组装16。Rok还可以磷酸化LIM激酶，当激活时，通过磷酸化和抑制肌动蛋白解聚因子cofilin17,18来防止肌动蛋白分解。Diaphanous是一种福尔马林家族肌动蛋白成核剂，可促进肌动蛋白聚合，为肌球蛋白与19,20,21相互作用提供基础。
虽然激活肌动肌蛋白收缩力的细胞机制已经得到很好的阐明，但我们对其在调节动态组织重塑中的功能的理解仍然不完整。填补这一知识空白需要能够快速灭活体内特定组织区域的肌动球蛋白并记录对组织行为和性质的直接影响的方法。该协议描述了使用光遗传学方法在果蝇中胚层内陷期间急性抑制肌动肌蛋白收缩力，然后使用激光消融测量上皮张力。在果蝇原肠胚形成过程中，腹侧定位的中胚层前体细胞通过形成前后定向的沟22,23，经历顶端收缩并从胚胎表面内陷。腹沟的形成长期以来一直被用作研究上皮折叠机制的模型。腹侧沟的形成由果蝇24,25,26,27的背腹模式系统施用。位于胚胎腹侧的两种转录因子Twist和Snail的表达控制腹侧沟的形成并指定中胚层细胞命运28。扭曲和蜗牛通过G蛋白偶联受体途径和RhoGEF2衔接蛋白T48 29,30,31,32,33激活Rho1 GEF RhoGEF2募集到中胚层前体细胞的顶点。接下来，RhoGEF2通过Rho-Rho激酶途径34,35,36,37,38,39激活潜在中胚层的整个顶端表面的肌球蛋白。活化的肌球蛋白在整个中胚层原基的顶端表面形成细胞上肌动球蛋白网络，其收缩驱动顶端收缩并导致顶端组织张力迅速增加14,37,40。
本协议中描述的光遗传学工具Opto-Rho1DN通过蓝光依赖性质膜募集主要阴性形式的Rho1（Rho1DN）41来抑制肌动肌蛋白收缩力。Rho1DN中的T19N突变消除了突变蛋白将GDP交换为GTP的能力，从而使蛋白质永久失活34。随后的Rho1DN突变C189Y消除了其幼稚膜靶向信号42,43。当 Rho1DN 注入质膜时，它会结合并储存 Rho1 GEF，从而阻断 Rho1 的活化以及 Rho1 介导的肌球蛋白和肌动蛋白34,44 的活化。Rho1DN的质膜募集是通过衍生自Cryptochrome 2及其结合伴侣CIB1的光依赖性二聚化模块实现的。隐花色素2是拟南芥45中的蓝光激活隐色素感光器。隐花色素2仅以光激发态45与CIB1（一种碱性的螺旋-环-螺旋蛋白）结合。后来发现，来自隐花色素2（CRY2 PHR，以下简称CRY2）的保守N端，光解酶同源区（PHR）和CIB1（以下简称CIBN）的N端结构域（aa 1-170）对于光诱导二聚化很重要46。Opto-Rho1DN包含两个组件。第一个组成部分是与CAAX锚融合的CIBN蛋白，它将蛋白质定位到质膜47。第二个组件是mCherry标记的CRY2与Rho1DN41融合。在没有蓝光的情况下，CRY2-Rho1DN保留在细胞质中。在蓝光刺激下，CRY2-Rho1DN通过膜锚定CIBN和激发的CRY2之间的相互作用靶向质膜。Opto-Rho1DN可以通过紫外A（UVA）光和蓝光（400-500nm，450-488nm处的峰值激活）激活，或者在进行双光子刺激41,46,47,48时通过830-980nm脉冲激光激活。因此，Opto-Rho1DN受到通常用于激发GFP的波长的刺激（单光子成像为488 nm，双光子成像为920 nm）。相比之下，通常用于激发mCherry的波长（单光子成像为561 nm，双光子成像为1,040 nm）不会刺激光遗传模块，因此可用于刺激前成像。该协议描述了用于最小化样品操作过程中不需要的刺激风险的方法。
激光消融已被广泛用于检测和测量细胞和组织中的张力49。先前的研究表明，当激光强度得到适当控制时，使用飞秒近红外激光的双光子激光烧蚀可以物理损害某些亚细胞结构（例如，皮质肌动肌蛋白网络），而不会引起质膜狂喜50,51。如果组织处于张力下，激光消融组织内感兴趣的区域会导致与烧蚀区域相邻的细胞立即向外反冲。反冲速度是承受后坐力的结构周围的介质（细胞质）的张力大小和粘度的函数49。由于近红外激光具有优越的穿透深度和实现良好局限聚焦消融的能力，双光子激光消融对于检测体内组织张力特别有用。如该协议所示，该方法可以很容易地与Opto-Rho1DN介导的肌动球蛋白收缩力失活相结合，以研究动态组织重塑过程中Rho1依赖性细胞收缩力对组织力学的直接影响。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>35 mm glass-bottom dish</td>
			<td>MatTek</td>
			<td>P35G-1.5-10-C</td>
			<td>Used for sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60 mm &#215; 15 mm Petri dish with lid</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>351007</td>
			<td>Used for sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Black cloth for covering the microscope</td>
			<td>Online</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used to avoid unwanted light stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clorox Ultra Germicadal Bleach (8.25% sodium hypochlorite)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10028-048</td>
			<td>Used for embryo dechorination</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CO2 pad</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>59-114</td>
			<td>Used for cross set-up</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ddH2O</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used for sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont Style 5 tweezers</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>102091-654</td>
			<td>Used for sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eyelash tool (made from pure red sable round brush #2)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>22940-834</td>
			<td>Used for sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FluoView (Software)</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used for image acquisition and optogenetic stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halocarbon oil 27</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>H8773-100ML</td>
			<td>Used for embryo stage visualization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ/FIJI</td>
			<td>NIH</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used for image analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>MathWorks</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used for image analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nikon SMZ-745 stereoscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used for sample preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olympus FVMPE-RS multiphoton microscope with InSight DS Dual-line Ultrafast Lasers for simultaneous dual-wavelength multiphoton imaging, , a 25x/NA1.05 water immersion objective (XLPLN25XWMP2), and an IR/VIS stimulation unit for photo-activation/stimulation. This system is also equipped with a TRITC filter (39005-BX3; AT-TRICT-REDSHFT 540/25x, 565BS, 620/60M), and a fluorescence illumination unit that emits white light.</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used for image acquisition and optogenetic stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SP Bel-Art 100-place polypropylene freezer storage box (Black, light-proof box for sample transfer)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>30621-392</td>
			<td>Used to avoid unwanted light stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV Filter Shield for FM1403 Fluores (Orange-red plastic shield)</td>
			<td>Bolioptics</td>
			<td>FM14036151</td>
			<td>Used to avoid unwanted light stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VITCHELO V800 Headlamp with White and Red LED Lights</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Used to avoid unwanted light stimulation</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optogenetic inhibition of rho1-mediated actomyosin contractility coupled with measurement of epithelial tension in drosophila embryos

肌动蛋白和非肌球蛋白II产生的收缩力（“肌动肌蛋白收缩力”）对于细胞和组织在多个长度尺度上的形态变化至关重要，例如细胞分裂，细胞迁移，上皮折叠和分支形态发生。深入了解肌动球蛋白收缩性在形态发生中的作用需要允许快速灭活肌动球蛋白的方法，这是使用传统的遗传学或药理学方法难以实现的。所提出的协议展示了使用基于CRY2-CIBN的光遗传学二聚化系统Opto-Rho1DN通过精确的时间和空间控制来抑制 果蝇 胚胎中的肌动球蛋白收缩力。在该系统中，CRY2融合到Rho1（Rho1DN）的主要负形式，而CIBN锚定在质膜上。蓝光介导的CRY2和CIBN二聚化导致Rho1DN从细胞质快速转移到质膜，在那里它通过抑制内源性Rho1使肌动球蛋白失活。此外，本文还提出了将Opto-Rho1DN介导的肌动球蛋白失活与激光消融偶联的详细方案，以研究肌动肌蛋白在 果蝇 腹侧沟形成过程中产生上皮张力中的作用。该协议可以应用于许多其他形态过程，这些过程涉及 果蝇 胚胎中的肌动肌收缩性，只需最少的修改。总体而言，这种光遗传学工具是剖析动态组织重塑过程中肌动肌蛋白收缩力在控制组织力学中的功能的有力方法。

Actomyosin contractility, the contractile force exerted by non-muscle myosin II (hereafter &#39;myosin&#39;) on the F-actin network, is one of the most important forces in changing cell shape and driving tissue-level morphogenesis1,2. For example, the activation of actomyosin contractility at the apical domain of the epithelial cells results in apical constriction, which facilitates a variety of morphogenetic processes, including epithelial folding, cell extrusion, delamination, and wound healing3,4,5,6,7. The activation of myosin requires phosphorylation of its regulatory light chain. This modification alleviates the inhibitory conformation of the myosin molecules, allowing them to form bipolar myosin filament bundles with multiple head domains on both ends. The bipolar myosin filaments drive the anti-parallel movement of actin filaments and result in the generation of contractile force1,8,9.
The evolutionarily conserved Rho family&#160;small GTPase RhoA (Rho1 in Drosophila)&#160;plays a central role in the activation of actomyosin contractility in various cellular contexts10,11. Rho1 functions as a bimolecular switch by binding either GTP (active form) or GDP (inactive form)12. The cycling between GTP- or GDP-bound Rho1 is regulated by its GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) and guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (GEFs)13. GEFs function to facilitate the exchange of GDP for GTP and thus activate Rho1 activity. GAPs, on the other hand, enhance the GTPase activity of Rho1 and thus deactivate Rho1. Activated Rho1 promotes actomyosin contractility through interacting with and activating its downstream effectors, Rho-associated kinase (Rok) and Diaphanous14. Rok induces myosin activation and actomyosin contractility by phosphorylating the regulatory light chain of myosin15. In addition, Rok also inhibits the myosin regulatory light chain phosphatase, and hence further promotes myosin filament assembly16. Rok can also phosphorylate LIM kinases, which, when activated, prevent actin disassembly by phosphorylating and inhibiting the actin-depolymerization factor cofilin17,18. Diaphanous is a formin family actin nucleator that promotes actin polymerization, providing a base for myosin to interact with19,20,21.
While the cellular mechanisms that activate actomyosin contractility have been well elucidated, our understanding of its function in regulating dynamic tissue remodeling remains incomplete. Filling this knowledge gap requires approaches that can rapidly inactivate actomyosin at specific tissue regions in vivo and record the immediate impact on tissue behavior and properties. This protocol describes the use of an optogenetic approach to acutely inhibit actomyosin contractility during Drosophila mesoderm invagination, followed by measurement of epithelial tension using laser ablation. During Drosophila gastrulation, the ventrally localized mesoderm precursor cells undergo apical constriction and invaginate from the surface of the embryo by forming an anterior-posteriorly oriented furrow22,23. The formation of ventral furrows has long been used as a model for studying the mechanism of epithelial folding. Ventral furrow formation is administered by the dorsal-ventral patterning system in Drosophila24,25,26,27. The expression of two transcription factors, Twist and Snail, located at the ventral side of the embryo, controls ventral furrow formation and specifies mesodermal cell fate28. Twist and Snail activate the recruitment of the Rho1 GEF RhoGEF2 to the apex of the mesoderm precursor cells via a G-protein coupled receptor pathway and a RhoGEF2 adaptor protein, T4829,30,31,32,33. Next, RhoGEF2 activates myosin throughout the apical surface of the potential mesoderm through the Rho-Rho kinase pathway34,35,36,37,38,39. Activated myosin forms a supracellular actomyosin network throughout the apical surface of the mesoderm primordium, the contractions of which drive apical constriction and result in a rapid increase in apical tissue tension14,37,40.
The optogenetic tool described in this protocol, Opto-Rho1DN, inhibits actomyosin contractility through blue-light dependent plasma membrane recruitment of a dominant negative form of Rho1 (Rho1DN)41. A T19N mutation in Rho1DN eliminates the ability of the mutant protein to exchange GDP for GTP and thus renders the protein perpetually inactive34. A subsequent mutation in Rho1DN, C189Y, eliminates its naive membrane targeting signal42,43. When Rho1DN is infused to the plasma membrane, it binds to and impounds Rho1 GEFs, thereby blocking the activation of Rho1 as well as Rho1-mediated activation of myosin and actin34,44. The plasma membrane recruitment of Rho1DN is achieved through a light-dependent dimerization module derived from Cryptochrome 2 and its binding partner CIB1. Cryptochrome 2 is a blue-light activated Cryptochrome photoreceptor in Arabidopsis thaliana45. Cryptochrome 2 binds to CIB1, a basic helix-loop-helix protein, only in its photoexcited state45. It was later found that the conserved N-terminal, photolyase homology region (PHR), from Cryptochrome 2 (CRY2PHR, hereafter referred to as CRY2) and the N-terminal domain (aa 1-170) of CIB1 (hereafter CIBN) are important for light-induced dimerization46. Opto-Rho1DN contains two components. The first component is the CIBN protein fused with a CAAX anchor, which localizes the protein to the plasma membrane47. The second component is mCherry-tagged CRY2 fused with Rho1DN41. In the absence of blue light, CRY2-Rho1DN remains in the cytoplasm. Upon blue light stimulation, CRY2-Rho1DN is targeted to the plasma membrane through the interaction between membrane-anchored CIBN and excited CRY2. Opto-Rho1DN can be activated by ultraviolet A (UVA) light and blue light (400-500 nm, peak activation at 450-488 nm), or by an 830-980 nm pulsed laser when performing two-photon stimulation41,46,47,48. Therefore, Opto-Rho1DN is stimulated by wavelengths normally used for exciting GFP (488 nm for single photon imaging and 920 nm for two-photon imaging). In contrast, wavelengths commonly used for exciting mCherry (561 nm for single photon imaging and 1,040 nm for two-photon imaging) do not stimulate the optogenetic module and therefore can be used for pre-stimulation imaging. The protocol describes the approaches used to minimize the risk of unwanted stimulation during sample manipulation.
Laser ablation has been extensively employed to detect and measure tension in cells and tissues49. Previous studies have shown that, when laser intensity is appropriately controlled, two-photon laser ablation employing a femtosecond near-infrared laser can physically impair some subcellular structures (e.g., cortical actomyosin networks) without causing plasma membrane rapture50,51. If the tissue is under tension, laser ablation of a region of interest within the tissue results in an immediate outward recoil of the cells adjacent to the ablated region. The recoil velocity is a function of the magnitude of the tension and the viscosity of the media (cytoplasm) surrounding the structures undergoing recoil49. Because of the superior penetration depth of the near-infrared lasers and the ability to achieve well-confined focal ablation, two-photon laser ablation is particularly useful for detecting tissue tension in vivo. As demonstrated in this protocol, this method can be easily combined with Opto-Rho1DN-mediated inactivation of actomyosin contractility to investigate the direct impact of Rho1-dependent cellular contractility on tissue mechanics during dynamic tissue remodeling.

作者聚焦： Rho1 介导的肌动球蛋白收缩力的光遗传学抑制与果蝇胚胎上皮张力的测量相结合  

Rho1介导的肌动肌蛋白收缩力的光遗传学抑制与 果蝇 胚胎上皮张力的测量

Our research studies tissue morphogenesis, the formation of complex three-dimensional tissue structures in development. We are interested in the genes and the molecules that regulate morphogenesis and seek to understand the physical principles underlying morphogenesis. For example, how mechanical forces are generated and how they drive tissue rehabilitation.Contractile forces generated by filamentous actin and non-muscle myosin II, also known as actomyosin contractility, is one of the most important forces that drive tissue morphogenesis. Our current research addresses how actomyosin contractility mediates the folding of blood epithelial cell sheets, a fundamental tissue construction mechanism in development. An in-depth understanding of the role of actomyosin contractility in epithelial folding and other morphogenetic processes requires approaches that can quickly inactivate actomyosin at designated time and location, and records the immediate impact of tissue behavior and properties.However, this is difficult to achieve using conventional genetic approaches. The approach described in this protocol is designed to address how cells and tissues respond to sudden changes in mechanical forces that normally drive tissue remodeling. This is an important question but has been difficult to tackle due to limited approaches that can quickly alter mechanical forces in intact tissues.In this study, we developed an optogenetic tool to inactivate actomyosin at specific tissue regions in Drosophila embryos quickly. We found that combining these two with laser ablation to investigate the direct impact of actomyosin contractility on tissue mechanics in epithelial folding. Our findings provide new insights into the mechanical mechanism apical constriction media to epithelial folding.With manual modifications, the protocol can be easily adapted to study the function of actomyosin contractility in a wide range of morphogenetic processes.

在经历顶端收缩的未刺激胚胎中，Sqh-mCherry在腹侧中胚层细胞的中尖区域富集，而CRY2-Rho1DN-mCherry是胞质的（图1A）。收缩域内的激光消融导致沿A-P轴的快速组织反冲（图1B，C）。在受刺激的胚胎中，CRY2-Rho1DN-mCherry信号变得质膜定位，而Sqh-mCherry的中等神经质地信号完全消失（图1A）。受刺激胚胎中的激光消融不会导致?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optogenetic Inhibition of Rho1-Mediated Actomyosin Contractility Coupled with Measurement of Epithelial Tension in Drosophila Embryos at JoVE.com

肌动肌蛋白收缩力在细胞和组织形态发生中起重要作用。然而，在 体内 急性操纵肌动肌蛋白收缩力具有挑战性。该协议描述了一种光遗传学系统，该系统可快速抑制 果蝇 胚胎中Rho1介导的肌动肌蛋白收缩力，揭示了 体内肌动球蛋白失活后上皮张力的立即丧失。

Contractile forces generated by actin and non-muscle myosin II ("actomyosin contractility") are critical for morphological changes of cells and tissues at ...

我们的研究研究组织形态发生，发育中复杂三维组织结构的形成。我们对调节形态发生的基因和分子感兴趣，并试图了解形态发生背后的物理原理。例如，机械力是如何产生的以及它们如何驱动组织康复。丝状肌动蛋白和非肌球蛋白II产生的收缩力，也称为肌动肌蛋白收缩力，是驱动组织形态发生的最重要力量之一。我们目前的研究解决了肌动肌素收缩性如何介导血上皮细胞片的折叠，这是发育中的基本组织构建机制。深入了解肌动肌蛋白收缩性在上皮折叠和其他形态发生过程中的作用需要能够在指定时间和地点快速灭活肌动球蛋白的方法，并记录组织行为和性质的直接影响。然而，使用传统的遗传方法很难做到这一点。本协议中描述的方法旨在解决细胞和组织如何响应通常驱动组织重塑的机械力的突然变化。这是一个重要的问题，但由于可以快速改变完整组织中机械力的方法有限，因此很难解决。在这项研究中，我们开发了一种光遗传学工具，可以快速灭活果蝇胚胎中特定组织区域的肌动球蛋白。我们发现将这两者与激光消融相结合，以研究肌动肌蛋白收缩性对上皮折叠中组织力学的直接影响。我们的研究结果为上皮折叠的根尖收缩介质的机械机制提供了新的见解。通过手动修改，该方案可以很容易地适应研究肌动球蛋白收缩性在各种形态发生过程中的功能。

Rho1介导的肌动肌蛋白收缩力的光遗传学抑制与果蝇胚胎上皮张力的测量

Abstract

Rho1介导的肌动肌蛋白收缩力的光遗传学抑制与 果蝇 胚胎上皮张力的测量

Abstract

Rho1介导的肌动肌蛋白收缩力的光遗传学抑制与果蝇胚胎上皮张力的测量