This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant R01 EY030998 (J.F.M., A.B., and S.C.). This method is based on methods developed in Coop et al. (under review, 2022; https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.10.11.511827v2.abstract). We would like to thank Dina Graf and members of the Mitchell lab for help with the marmoset care and handling.

The experimental procedures followed the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The protocols for the experimental and behavioral procedures were approved by the University of Rochester Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Construction of the micro-drive containing the electrode for recording (Figure 1)
NOTE: Custom-built X-Y stages holding multi-channel linear silicon a...

Development of an X-Y Electrode Stage for Precise Neural Recording in Marmosets

<ol>
	<li>Mansfield, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Marmoset+models+commonly+used+in+biomedical+research.">Marmoset models commonly used in biomedical research.</a> Comparative Medicine. 53 (4), 383-392 (2003).</li><li>Solomon, S. G., Rosa, M. G. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simpler+primate+brain:+the+visual+system+of+the+marmoset+monkey.">A simpler primate brain: the visual system of the marmoset monkey.</a> Frontiers in Neural Circuits. 8, 96 (2014).</li><li>Remington, E. D., Osmanski, M. S., Wang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+operant+conditioning+method+for+studying+auditory+behaviors+in+marmoset+monkeys.">An operant conditioning method for studying auditory behaviors in marmoset monkeys.</a> PLoS One. 7 (10), e47895 (2012).</li><li>Walker, J. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+wireless+neural+population+recordings+with+common+marmosets.">Chronic wireless neural population recordings with common marmosets.</a> Cell Reports. 36 (2), 109379 (2021).</li><li>Jendritza, P., Klein, F. J., Fries, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-area+recordings+and+optogenetics+in+the+awake,+behaving+marmoset.">Multi-area recordings and optogenetics in the awake, behaving marmoset.</a> Nature Communications. 14 (1), 577 (2023).</li><li>Pinotsis, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Linking+canonical+microcircuits+and+neuronal+activity:+Dynamic+causal+modelling+of+laminar+recordings.">Linking canonical microcircuits and neuronal activity: Dynamic causal modelling of laminar recordings.</a> Neuroimage. 146, 355-366 (2017).</li><li>Ludwig, K. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poly+(3,+4-ethylenedioxythiophene)(PEDOT)+polymer+coatings+facilitate+smaller+neural+recording+electrodes.">Poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene)(PEDOT) polymer coatings facilitate smaller neural recording electrodes.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 8 (1), 014001 (2011).</li><li>Ludwig, K. A., Uram, J. D., Yang, J., Martin, D. C., Kipke, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+neural+recordings+using+silicon+microelectrode+arrays+electrochemically+deposited+with+a+poly+(3,+4-ethylenedioxythiophene)(PEDOT)+film.">Chronic neural recordings using silicon microelectrode arrays electrochemically deposited with a poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene)(PEDOT) film.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 3 (1), 59 (2006).</li><li>Lu, T., Liang, L., Wang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+representations+of+temporally+asymmetric+stimuli+in+the+auditory+cortex+of+awake+primates.">Neural representations of temporally asymmetric stimuli in the auditory cortex of awake primates.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 85 (6), 2364-2380 (2001).</li><li>Osmanski, M. S., Song, X., Wang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+harmonic+resolvability+in+pitch+perception+in+a+vocal+nonhuman+primate,+the+common+marmoset+(Callithrix+jacchus).">The role of harmonic resolvability in pitch perception in a vocal nonhuman primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus).</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 33 (21), 9161-9168 (2013).</li><li>Nummela, S. U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Psychophysical+measurement+of+marmoset+acuity+and+myopia.">Psychophysical measurement of marmoset acuity and myopia.</a> Developmental Neurobiology. 77 (3), 300-313 (2017).</li><li>Paxinos, G., Watson, C., Petrides, M., Rosa, M., Tokuno, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Marmoset Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates. , (2012).</li><li>Mitchell, J. F., Reynolds, J. H., Miller, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+vision+in+marmosets:+A+model+system+for+visual+neuroscience.">Active vision in marmosets: A model system for visual neuroscience.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 34 (4), 1183-1194 (2014).</li><li>Spitler, K. M., Gothard, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+removable+silicone+elastomer+seal+reduces+granulation+tissue+growth+and+maintains+the+sterility+of+recording+chambers+for+primate+neurophysiology.">A removable silicone elastomer seal reduces granulation tissue growth and maintains the sterility of recording chambers for primate neurophysiology.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 169 (1), 23-26 (2008).</li><li>Jun, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fully+integrated+silicon+probes+for+high-density+recording+of+neural+activity.">Fully integrated silicon probes for high-density recording of neural activity.</a> Nature. 551 (7679), 232-236 (2017).</li><li>Mitzdorf, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+source-density+method+and+application+in+cat+cerebral+cortex:+investigation+of+evoked+potentials+and+EEG+phenomena.">Current source-density method and application in cat cerebral cortex: investigation of evoked potentials and EEG phenomena.</a> Physiological Reviews. 65 (1), 37-100 (1985).</li><li>Coop, S. H., Yates, J. L., Mitchell, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pre-saccadic+neural+enhancements+in+marmoset+area+MT.">Pre-saccadic neural enhancements in marmoset area MT.</a> bioRxiv. , (2022).</li><li>Okun, M., Lak, A., Carandini, M., Harris, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long+term+recordings+with+immobile+silicon+probes+in+the+mouse+cortex.">Long term recordings with immobile silicon probes in the mouse cortex.</a> PloS One. 11 (3), e0151180 (2016).</li></ol>

Several methods (e.g., chronic, semi-chronic, acute) are currently available for performing neurophysiology experiments in non-human primates. The common marmoset poses unique challenges for neurophysiology experiments due to its small size and lack of gyri as anatomical landmarks. This requires researchers to use neurophysiological landmarks such as the retinotopy and tuning properties of areas of interest to identify the recording targets. Therefore, when initially mapping out a cortical area, daily adjustments to the ...

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) has quickly grown in popularity as a model to study brain function in recent years. This growing popularity is due to the accessibility of the marmoset&#39;s smooth cortex, the similarities in neural functional organization with humans and other primates, and the small size and fast breeding rate1. As this model organism has grown in popularity, there has been rapid development in the neurophysiological techniques suited for use in the marmoset brain. Electrophysiology methods are widely used in neuroscience to study the activity of single neurons in the cortex of both rodents and primates, resulting in unparalleled temporal resolution and location access. Due to the relative novelty of the marmoset monkey as a model of visual neuroscience, the optimization of awake-behaving electrophysiology techniques is still evolving. Previous studies have shown the establishment of robust protocols for electrophysiology in anesthetized preparations2, and early awake-behaving neurophysiology studies have shown the reliability of single-channel tungsten electodes3. In recent years, researchers have established the use of silicon-based microelectrode arrays for awake-behaving neurophysiology4. However, the marmoset poses unique targeting challenges due to its small brain size and lack of anatomical landmarks. This protocol outlines how to construct and use a micro-drive recording system suitable for the marmoset that allows for the recording of large populations of neurons with silicon linear arrays while producing minimal tissue damage.
Working with the marmoset poses a challenge due to the smaller scale of the retinotopic maps in the visual cortex as compared to larger primates. A slight shift of the electrodes by just 1 mm can result in significant changes in the maps. Moreover, researchers often need to alter the placement of the electrodes between the recording sessions to obtain a broader range of retinotopic positions in the visual cortex. Current semi-chronic preparations do not allow for the adjustment of the electrode positioning daily or with enough precision to target specific locations at sub-millimeter scales5. With this in mind, the proposed micro-drive system utilizes an X-Y electrode stage that mounts a lightweight micro-drive to a recording chamber and allows for the sub-millimeter targeting of cortical sites. The moveable X-Y stage components allow for vertical and horizontal movement of the linear array in order to traverse the cortical areas systematically, which is required to identify areas of interest (via retinotopy and tuning properties). Across recording sessions, researchers can also manually adjust the X-Y stage to shift the targeted sites within the area. This is a key advantage over alternative techniques using semi-chronic recording preparations, which do not have easy electrode targeting mechanisms.
The micro-drive is a versatile tool that enables the attachment of various silicon arrays to be mounted for lowering into the cortex. In this protocol, a custom probe with two 32-channel linear arrays spaced 200 &#181;m apart was used for the investigation of laminar circuits spanning the cortical depth. Most methods for probing the neural circuitry typically sample the electrical potentials or single units averaged across all the layers of the cerebral cortex. However, recent research has revealed intriguing findings about cortical laminar microcircuits6. By utilizing the micro-drive, researchers can use laminar probes and make fine adjustments to the recording depth to ensure comprehensive sampling across all the layers.
This system can be constructed with commercially available components and is easily modified for different experimental techniques or probes. The key advantages of this preparation are the ability to change the X-Y recording position with sub-millimeter precision and to control the depth of the recording within the cortex. This protocol presents step-by-step instructions for constructing the X-Y stage micro-drive and neurophysiology recording techniques.

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electrophysiology of laminar cortical activity in the common marmoset

The marmoset monkey provides an ideal model for examining laminar cortical circuits due to its smooth cortical surface, which facilitates recordings with linear arrays. The marmoset has recently grown in popularity due to its similar neural functional organization to other primates and its technical advantages for recording and imaging. However, neurophysiology in this model poses some unique challenges due to the small size and lack of gyri as anatomical landmarks. Using custom-built micro-drives, researchers can manipulate linear array placement to sub-millimeter precision and reliably record at the same retinotopically targeted location across recording days. This protocol describes the step-by-step construction of the micro-drive positioning system and the neurophysiological recording technique with silicon linear electrode arrays. With precise control of electrode placement across recording sessions, researchers can easily traverse the cortex to identify areas of interest based on their retinotopic organization and the tuning properties of the recorded neurons. Further, using this laminar array electrode system, it is possible to apply a current source density analysis (CSD) to determine the recording depth of individual neurons. This protocol also demonstrates examples of laminar recordings, including spike waveforms isolated in Kilosort, which span multiple channels on the arrays.

Author Spotlight: Optimizing Micro-Drive Systems for Precise Electrode Positioning in Marmoset

Electrophysiology of Laminar Cortical Activity in the Common Marmoset

The common marmoset poses unique challenges for neurophysiology due to its small size and lack of gyre as anatomical landmarks. A slight shift of the electrode by just a millimeter can result in significant changes in the retinotopy map. The proposed micro drive system utilizes an XY electrode stage that allows for vertical and horizontal movement on a sub millimeter scale.Due to the relative novelty of the marmoset monkey as a model for visual neuron sign, awake behaving electrophysiology techniques are still evolving. Current preparations often use semi chronic probes that do not allow access for the positioning mechanisms. This protocol demonstrates a lightweight micro drive for useful linear array recordings, which allow flexible positioning across sessions to map out retinotopy within the chamber.Long-term cortical damage can be avoided in the preparation when used correctly with the secure drive, slow penetration of tissue, and avoidance of major blood vessels. Additionally, the use of silastic in the craniotomies to avoid infections has been optimized in this technique.

This protocol describes how to build an X-Y electrode stage (Figure 1) that allows for the sub-millimeter targeting of sites and maintains reliable positioning across separate recording sessions. The reliability of the X-Y positioning is illustrated in Figure 6, which demonstrates that two recording sessions conducted a week apart showed a 70.8% overlap in their mean RF locations (Figure 6A). Furthermore, minor adjustments to the mi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Electrophysiology of Laminar Cortical Activity in the Common Marmoset at JoVE.com

Custom-built micro-drives enable the sub-millimeter targeting of cortical recording sites with linear silicon arrays.

The marmoset monkey provides an ideal model for examining laminar cortical circuits due to its smooth cortical surface, which facilitates recordings with ...

electrophysiology-of-laminar-cortical-activity-in-the-common-marmoset