Name: fruit volatile analysis using an electronic nose
Uploaded: 2012-03-30T13:00:00
Duration: 11 min 2 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fruit Volatile Analysis Using an Electronic Nose at JoVE.com

लेखक इस विश्लेषण के लिए तरबूज फल प्रदान करने के लिए विधेयक copes (हैरिस मोरन बीज कंपनी, डेविस) धन्यवाद. इस परियोजना विशेषता फसलों अनुसंधान पहल प्रतिस्पर्धी अनुदान कार्यक्रम द्वारा समर्थित है कोई अनुदान. 2009-51181-05783 खाद्य और कृषि USDA राष्ट्रीय संस्थान से.

<ol>
	<li>Kader, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flavor+quality+of+fruits+and+vegetables.">Flavor quality of fruits and vegetables.</a> Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 88, 1863-1868 (2008).</li><li>Persaud, K., Dodd, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+discriminant+mechanisms+in+the+mammalian+olfactory+system+using+a+model+nose.">Analysis of discriminant mechanisms in the mammalian olfactory system using a model nose.</a> Nature. 299, 352-355 (1982).</li><li>Gardner, J. W., Bartlett, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+brief-history+of+electronic+noses.">A brief-history of electronic noses.</a> Sensors and Actuators. 18, 211-220 (1994).</li><li>Rock, F., Barsan, N., Weimar, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electronic+nose:+Current+status+and+future+trends.">Electronic nose: Current status and future trends.</a> Chem. Rev. 108, 705-725 (2008).</li><li>Li, C., Heinemann, P. H., Irudayaraj, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+apple+deterioration+using+an+electronic+nose+and+zNose.">Detection of apple deterioration using an electronic nose and zNose.</a> Transactions of the Asabe. 50, 1417-1425 (2007).</li><li>Li, Z. F., Wang, N., Raghavan, G. S. V., Vigneault, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ripeness+and+rot+evaluation+of+'Tommy+Atkins'+mango+fruit+through+volatiles+detection.">Ripeness and rot evaluation of 'Tommy Atkins' mango fruit through volatiles detection.</a> J. Food Eng. 91, 319-324 (2009).</li><li>Oh, S. Y., Ko, J. W., Jeong, S. Y., Hong, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+and+exploration+of+fast+gas+chromatography-surface+acoustic+wave+sensor+to+the+analysis+of+thymus+species.">Application and exploration of fast gas chromatography-surface acoustic wave sensor to the analysis of thymus species.</a> J. Chromatogr. A. 1205, 117-127 (2008).</li><li>Watkins, P., Wijesundera, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+zNose+for+the+analysis+of+selected+grape+aroma+compounds.">Application of zNose for the analysis of selected grape aroma compounds.</a> Talanta. 70, 595-601 (2006).</li><li>Gan, H. L., Man, Y. B. C., Tan, C. P., NorAini, I., Nazimah, S. A. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterisation+of+vegetable+oils+by+surface+acoustic+wave+sensing+electronic+nose.">Characterisation of vegetable oils by surface acoustic wave sensing electronic nose.</a> Food Chem. 89, 507-518 (2005).</li><li>Marina, A. M., Man, Y. B. C., Amin, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+SAW+Sensor+Electronic+Nose+for+Detecting+the+Adulteration+of+Virgin+Coconut+Oil+with+RBD+Palm+Kernel+Olein.">Use of the SAW Sensor Electronic Nose for Detecting the Adulteration of Virgin Coconut Oil with RBD Palm Kernel Olein.</a> Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 87, 263-270 (2010).</li><li>Evans, M. B., Haken, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+developments+in+the+gas-chromatographic+index+scheme.">Recent developments in the gas-chromatographic index scheme.</a> Journal of Chromatography. 472, 93-127 (1989).</li></ol>

हम खुलासा करने के लिए कुछ भी नहीं है.

इलेक्ट्रॉनिक नाक तेजी से फल या अस्थिर अमीर नमूने से सुगंध प्रोफाइल का उद्देश्य मूल्यांकन के लिए एक आशाजनक तरीका का प्रतिनिधित्व करते हैं. हालांकि, प्रतिधारण समय में परिवर्तन शिखर पहचान के लिए एक चुनौती का प्रतिनिधित्व करते हैं और डेटा के अशुद्ध अर्थ के लिए नेतृत्व जब दो chromatograms पूरी तरह से गठबंधन नहीं कर रहे हो सकता है. Chromatograms का दृश्य निरीक्षण संकेत दिया कि परिवर्तनशीलता नमूने बीच प्रतिधारण बार के अक्सर एक ही थोड़ा अलग की (लगभग 10 ±) मूल्यों के साथ लेबल किया जा शिखर के कारण होता है. यह अद्वितीय पता चला किस की एक अतिरंजित संख्या में अनुवाद. आदेश में तथ्यों का लाभ लेने के लिए है कि (क) विभिन्न यौगिकों विभिन्न परिपक्वता चरणों में मौजूद हैं और (ख) तकनीकी प्रतिकृति लगभग समान हैं, दो कंप्यूटर आधारित (स्क्रिप्ट &quot;kim_merge.py&quot; है, जो डेटा को संभालने के लिए दिनचर्या शामिल सेट, और &quot;kim_interface.py&quot;) जो एक ग्राफिकल यूजर इंटरफेस (GUI) प्रदान करता है व्यवस्थित करने के लिए विकसित किए गएएक अर्द्ध स्वचालित फैशन में नमूनों की तुलना, बहुत बड़े डेटा सेट के वर्णलेख विश्लेषण के लिए आवश्यक समय को कम करने. इन कार्यक्रमों में समेकन की अनुमति है, जहां उचित चोटियों में से एक एकल की लेबल के अंतर्गत की मूल्यों की एक सीमा के साथ लेबल,. यह दो महत्वपूर्ण उद्देश्यों में कार्य करता है: (क) यह एक सांख्यिकीय विश्लेषण करने के लिए सक्षम बनाता है एक चर के रूप में इस तरह के चोटियों का इलाज, और (ख) यह शिखर पहचान और अन्य प्रणालियों और प्रकाशित मूल्यों की तुलना की सुविधा है. यहाँ प्रस्तुत परिणामों से संकेत मिलता है कि तरबूज के नमूने परिपक्वता और सुगंध रूपरेखा पर्याप्त की पहचान के साथ संयोजन में zNose प्रणाली का उपयोग कर के आधार पर भेदभाव किया जा सकता है. इस वाष्पशील कि गुणवत्ता नियंत्रण कार्यक्रमों के लिए इस्तेमाल किया जा सकता है के विश्लेषण के लिए एक आशाजनक नई प्रौद्योगिकी का प्रतिनिधित्व करता है.

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> अभिकर्मक का नाम </td><td> कंपनी </td><td> सूचीपत्र संख्या </td><td> टिप्पणियाँ </td></tr><tr><td> कैल्सियम क्लोराइड </td><td> सांसद बायोमेडिकल </td><td> 195,088 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 2 - Methylbutyl isovalerate के </td><td> SAFC ग्लोबल </td><td> W350613 </td><td> ≥ 98%, प्राकृतिक, एफसीसी </td></tr><tr><td> मेथनॉल </td><td> फिशर साइंटिफिक </td><td> A411-4 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> शीशी </td><td> / सिग्मा Supelco </td><td> SU860098 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> टोपी </td><td> / सिग्मा Supelco </td><td> SU860101 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> प्रयोगशाला ब्लेंडर </td><td> Waring प्रयोगशाला विज्ञान </td><td> 7009G </td><td> 2 गति ब्लेंडर, 1 लीटर ग्लास कंटेनर </td></tr><tr><td> बोतल </td><td> फिशर साइंटिफिक </td><td> 06-414-1C </td><td> Pyrex, 500 एमएल, polypropylene के प्लग - सील </td></tr><tr><td> सुई </td><td> इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सेंसर प्रौद्योगिकी </td><td> TLC101046 </td><td> पक्ष छेद Luer </td></tr><tr><td> Alkanes समाधान </td><td> इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सेंसर प्रौद्योगिकी </td><td></td><td> C6-C14 मेथनॉल में alkanes समाधान </td></tr><tr><td> zNose </td><td> इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सेंसर प्रौद्योगिकी </td><td> 4500 मॉडल </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> DB-5 जीसी स्तंभ </td><td> इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सेंसर प्रौद्योगिकी </td><td> SYS4500C5 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> माइक्रोसेंस </td><td> इलेक्ट्रॉनिक सेंसर प्रौद्योगिकी </td><td> 5.44.22 संस्करण </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 2.6 अजगर </td><td></td><td></td><td> आज़ादी से उपलब्ध ऑन लाइन </td></tr><tr><td> &quot;Reform_data.py&quot; और &quot;kim_interface.py स्क्रिप्ट</td><td></td><td></td><td> जौव पर पूरक सामग्री के रूप में उपलब्ध लिपियों </td></tr></tbody></table>

fruit volatile analysis using an electronic nose

Numerous and diverse physiological changes occur during fruit ripening, including the development of a specific volatile blend that characterizes fruit aroma. Maturity at harvest is one of the key factors influencing the flavor quality of fruits and vegetables1. The validation of robust methods that rapidly assess fruit maturity and aroma quality would allow improved management of advanced breeding programs, production practices and postharvest handling. 
Over the last three decades, much research has been conducted to develop so-called electronic noses, which are devices able to rapidly detect odors and flavors2-4. Currently there are several commercially available electronic noses able to perform volatile analysis, based on different technologies. The electronic nose used in our work (zNose, EST, Newbury Park, CA, USA), consists of ultra-fast gas chromatography coupled with a surface acoustic wave sensor (UFGC-SAW). This technology has already been tested for its ability to monitor quality of various commodities, including detection of deterioration in apple5; ripeness and rot evaluation in mango6; aroma profiling of thymus species7; C6 volatile compounds in grape berries8; characterization of vegetable oil9 and detection of adulterants in virgin coconut oil10. 
This system can perform the three major steps of aroma analysis: headspace sampling, separation of volatile compounds, and detection. In about one minute, the output, a chromatogram, is produced and, after a purging cycle, the instrument is ready for further analysis. The results obtained with the zNose can be compared to those of other gas-chromatographic systems by calculation of Kovats Indices (KI). Once the instrument has been tuned with an alkane standard solution, the retention times are automatically converted into KIs. However, slight changes in temperature and flow rate are expected to occur over time, causing retention times to drift. Also, depending on the polarity of the column stationary phase, the reproducibility of KI calculations can vary by several index units11. A series of programs and graphical interfaces were therefore developed to compare calculated KIs among samples in a semi-automated fashion. These programs reduce the time required for chromatogram analysis of large data sets and minimize the potential for misinterpretation of the data when chromatograms are not perfectly aligned.
We present a method for rapid volatile compound analysis in fruit. Sample preparation, data acquisition and handling procedures are also discussed.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fruit Volatile Analysis Using an Electronic Nose at JoVE.com

Fruit Volatile Analysis Using an Electronic Nose

फल में अस्थिर यौगिक के विश्लेषण के लिए एक तेजी से विधि वर्णित है. अस्थिर नमूने के homogenate के headspace में मौजूद यौगिकों तेजी से और अलग हो रहे हैं अल्ट्रा तेज गैस क्रोमेटोग्राफी (जीसी) एक सतह ध्वनिक लहर (देखा) सेंसर के साथ युग्मित के साथ पकड़ा है. डेटा को संभालने और विश्लेषण के लिए एक प्रक्रिया पर भी चर्चा की है.

फल वाष्पशील इलेक्ट्रॉनिक नाक विश्लेषण का उपयोग

Numerous and diverse physiological changes occur during fruit ripening, including the development of a specific volatile blend that characterizes fruit ...

fruit-volatile-analysis-using-an-electronic-nose

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Studying Aggression in Drosophila (fruit flies)

Aggression is an innate behavior that evolved in the framework of defending or obtaining resources. This complex social behavior is influenced by genetic, hormonal and environmental factors. In many organisms, aggression is critical to survival but controlling and suppressing aggression in distinct contexts also has become increasingly important. In recent years, invertebrates have become increasingly useful as model systems for investigating the genetic and systems biological basis of complex social behavior. This is in part due to the diverse repertoire of behaviors exhibited by these organisms. In the accompanying video, we outline a method for analyzing aggression in Drosophila whose design encompasses important eco-ethological constraints. Details include steps for: making a fighting chamber; isolating and painting flies; adding flies to the fight chamber; and video taping fights. This approach is currently being used to identify candidate genes important in aggression and in elaborating the neuronal circuitry that underlies the output of aggression and other social behaviors.

Studying Aggression in Drosophila fruit flies

ड्रोसोफिला में आक्रामकता का अध्ययन (फल मक्खियों)

Aggression is an innate behavior that evolved in the framework of defending or obtaining resources.  This complex social behavior is influenced by ...

Homemade Site Directed Mutagenesis of Whole Plasmids

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. With this method the cloned target gene can be altered by substitution, deletion or insertion of a few bases directly into a plasmid. It works by simply amplifying the whole plasmid, in a non PCR-based thermocycling reaction. During the reaction mutagenic primers, carrying the desired mutation, are integrated into the newly synthesized plasmid. In this video tutorial we demonstrate an easy and cost effective way to introduce base substitutions into a plasmid. The protocol works with standard reagents and is independent from commercial kits, which often are very expensive. Applying this protocol can reduce the total cost of a reaction to an eighth of what it costs using some of the commercial kits. In this video we also comment on critical steps during the process and give detailed instructions on how to design the mutagenic primers.

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. Here we demonstrate an easy and cost effective way to introduce base substitutions into a plasmid using standard reagents.

साबुत प्लास्मिड के घर साइट निर्देशित mutagenesis

Site directed mutagenesis of whole plasmids is a simple way to create slightly different variations of an original plasmid. With this method the cloned ...

A Neuronal and Astrocyte Co-Culture Assay for High Content Analysis of Neurotoxicity

High Content Analysis (HCA) assays combine cells and detection reagents with automated imaging and powerful image analysis algorithms, allowing measurement of multiple cellular phenotypes within a single assay. In this study, we utilized HCA to develop a novel assay for neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicity assessment represents an important part of drug safety evaluation, as well as being a significant focus of environmental protection efforts. Additionally, neurotoxicity is also a well-accepted in vitro marker of the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Recently, the application of HCA to neuronal screening has been reported. By labeling neuronal cells with &beta;III-tubulin, HCA assays can provide high-throughput, non-subjective, quantitative measurements of parameters such as neuronal number, neurite count and neurite length, all of which can indicate neurotoxic effects. However, the role of astrocytes remains unexplored in these models. Astrocytes have an integral role in the maintenance of central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, and are associated with both neuroprotection and neurodegradation when they are activated in response to toxic substances or disease states. GFAP is an intermediate filament protein expressed predominantly in the astrocytes of the CNS. Astrocytic activation (gliosis) leads to the upregulation of GFAP, commonly accompanied by astrocyte proliferation and hypertrophy. This process of reactive gliosis has been proposed as an early marker of damage to the nervous system. The traditional method for GFAP quantitation is by immunoassay. This approach is limited by an inability to provide information on cellular localization, morphology and cell number. We determined that HCA could be used to overcome these limitations and to simultaneously measure multiple features associated with gliosis - changes in GFAP expression, astrocyte hypertrophy, and astrocyte proliferation - within a single assay. In co-culture studies, astrocytes have been shown to protect neurons against several types of toxic insult and to critically influence neuronal survival. Recent studies have suggested that the use of astrocytes in an in vitro neurotoxicity test system may prove more relevant to human CNS structure and function than neuronal cells alone. Accordingly, we have developed an HCA assay for co-culture of neurons and astrocytes, comprised of protocols and validated, target-specific detection reagents for profiling &beta;III-tubulin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). This assay enables simultaneous analysis of neurotoxicity, neurite outgrowth, gliosis, neuronal and astrocytic morphology and neuronal and astrocytic development in a wide variety of cellular models, representing a novel, non-subjective, high-throughput assay for neurotoxicity assessment. The assay holds great potential for enhanced detection of neurotoxicity and improved productivity in neuroscience research and drug discovery.

This article describes a novel protocol and reagent set designed for sensitive measurement of neurotoxic effects of compounds and treatments on co-cultures of neurons and astrocytes using high content analysis. Results demonstrate that high content analysis represents an exciting novel technology for neurotoxicity assessment.

Neurotoxicity के उच्च सामग्री विश्लेषण के लिए एक neuronal और astrocyte सह संस्कृति परख

High Content Analysis (HCA) assays combine cells and detection reagents with automated imaging and powerful image analysis algorithms, allowing ...

An Optimized Protocol for Rearing Fopius arisanus, a Parasitoid of Tephritid Fruit Flies

Fopius arisanus (Sonan) is an important parasitoid of Tephritid fruit flies for at least two reasons. First, it is the one of only three opiine parasitoids known to infect the host during the egg stage1. Second, it has a wide range of potential fruit fly hosts. Perhaps due to its life history, F. arisanus has been a successfully used for biological control of fruit flies in multiple tropical regions2-4. One impediment to the wide use of F. arisanus for fruit fly control is that it is difficult to establish a stable laboratory colony5-9. Despite this difficulty, in the 1990s USDA researchers developed a reliable method to maintain laboratory populations of F. arisanus10-12. There is significant interest in F. arisanus biology13,14, especially regarding its ability to colonize a wide variety of Tephritid hosts14-17; interest is especially driven by the alarming spread of Bactrocera fruit fly pests to new continents in the last decade18. Further research on F. arisanus and additional deployments of this species as a biological control agent will benefit from optimizations and improvements of rearing methods. In this protocol and associated video article we describe an optimized method for rearing F. arisanus based on a previously described approach12. The method we describe here allows rearing of F. arisanus in a small scale without the use of fruit, using materials available in tropical regions around the world and with relatively low manual labor requirements.

An Optimized Protocol for Rearing Fopius arisanus, a Parasitoid of Tephritid Fruit Flies

Fopius arisanus is an egg-larval parasitoid of Tephritid fruit flies that is successfully used in biological control of these important tropical pests. We describe here an optimized protocol for rearing F. arisanus on a small scale using readily available materials.

पालन ​​के लिए एक अनुकूलित प्रोटोकॉल Fopius arisanus Tephritid फलों की एक Parasitoid मक्खियों

Fopius arisanus (Sonan) is an important parasitoid of Tephritid fruit flies for at least two reasons. First, it is the one of only three opiine ...

Isolation and Biophysical Study of Fruit Cuticles

The cuticle, a hydrophobic protective layer on the aerial parts of terrestrial plants, functions as a versatile defensive barrier to various biotic and abiotic stresses and also regulates water flow from the external environment.1 A biopolyester (cutin) and long-chain fatty acids (waxes) form the principal structural framework of the cuticle; the functional integrity of the cuticular layer depends on the outer 'epicuticular' layer as well as the blend consisting of the cutin biopolymer and 'intracuticular' waxes.2 Herein, we describe a comprehensive protocol to extract waxes exhaustively from commercial tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit cuticles or to remove epicuticular and intracuticular waxes sequentially and selectively from the cuticle composite. The method of Jetter and Sch&auml;ffer (2001) was adapted for the stepwise extraction of epicuticular and intracuticular waxes from the fruit cuticle.3,4 To monitor the process of sequential wax removal, solid-state cross-polarization magic-angle-spinning (CPMAS) 13C NMR spectroscopy was used in parallel with atomic force microscopy (AFM), providing molecular-level structural profiles of the bulk materials complemented by information on the microscale topography and roughness of the cuticular surfaces. To evaluate the cross-linking capabilities of dewaxed cuticles from cultivated wild-type and single-gene mutant tomato fruits, MAS 13C NMR was used to compare the relative proportions of oxygenated aliphatic (CHO and CH2O) chemical moieties.
Exhaustive dewaxing by stepwise Soxhlet extraction with a panel of solvents of varying polarity provides an effective means to isolate wax moieties based on the hydrophobic characteristics of their aliphatic and aromatic constituents, while preserving the chemical structure of the cutin biopolyester. The mechanical extraction of epicuticular waxes and selective removal of intracuticular waxes, when monitored by complementary physical methodologies, provides an unprecedented means to investigate the cuticle assembly: this approach reveals the supramolecular organization and structural integration of various types of waxes, the architecture of the cutin-wax matrix, and the chemical composition of each constituent. In addition, solid-state 13C NMR reveals differences in the relative numbers of CHO and CH2O chemical moieties for wild-type and mutant red ripe tomato fruits. The NMR techniques offer exceptional tools to fingerprint the molecular structure of cuticular materials that are insoluble, amorphous, and chemically heterogeneous. As a noninvasive surface-selective imaging technique, AFM furnishes an effective and direct means to probe the structural organization of the cuticular assembly on the nm-&mu;m length scale.

Aerial plant organs are protected by the cuticle, a supramolecular biopolyester-wax assembly. We present protocols to monitor selective removal of epi- and intracuticular waxes from tomato fruit cuticles on molecular and micro scales by solid-state NMR and atomic force microscopy, respectively, and to assess the cross-linking capacity of engineered cuticular biopolyesters.

अलगाव और फलों cuticles की biophysical अध्ययन

The cuticle, a hydrophobic protective layer on the aerial parts of terrestrial plants, functions as a versatile defensive barrier to various biotic and ...

Analysis of SNARE-mediated Membrane Fusion Using an Enzymatic Cell Fusion Assay

The interactions of SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) proteins on vesicles (v-SNAREs) and on target membranes (t-SNAREs) catalyze intracellular vesicle fusion1-4. Reconstitution assays are essential for dissecting the mechanism and regulation of SNARE-mediated membrane fusion5. In a cell fusion assay6,7, SNARE proteins are expressed ectopically at the cell surface. These "flipped" SNARE proteins drive cell-cell fusion, demonstrating that SNAREs are sufficient to fuse cellular membranes. Because the cell fusion assay is based on microscopic analysis, it is less efficient when used to analyze multiple v- and t-SNARE interactions quantitatively.
Here we describe a new assay8 that quantifies SNARE-mediated cell fusion events by activated expression of &beta;-galactosidase. Two components of the Tet-Off gene expression system9 are used as a readout system: the tetracycline-controlled transactivator (tTA) and a reporter plasmid that encodes the LacZ gene under control of the tetracycline-response element (TRE-LacZ). We transfect tTA into COS-7 cells that express flipped v-SNARE proteins at the cell surface (v-cells) and transfect TRE-LacZ into COS-7 cells that express flipped t-SNARE proteins at the cell surface (t-cells). SNARE-dependent fusion of the v- and t-cells results in the binding of tTA to TRE, the transcriptional activation of LacZ and expression of &beta;-galactosidase. The activity of &beta;-galactosidase is quantified using a colorimetric method by absorbance at 420 nm.
The vesicle-associated membrane proteins (VAMPs) are v-SNAREs that reside in various post-Golgi vesicular compartments10-15. By expressing VAMPs 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 at the same level, we compare their membrane fusion activities using the enzymatic cell fusion assay. Based on spectrometric measurement, this assay offers a quantitative approach for analyzing SNARE-mediated membrane fusion and for high-throughput studies.

We have developed a cell fusion assay that quantifies SNARE-mediated membrane fusion events by activated expression of &beta;-galactosidase.

जाल की मध्यस्थता झिल्ली संलयन के विश्लेषण से एक enzymatic सेल फ्यूजन परख का उपयोग

The interactions of SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor)  proteins on vesicles (v-SNAREs) and on target membranes ...

Laboratory Protocol for Genetic Gut Content Analyses of Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Using Group-specific rDNA Primers

Analyzing food webs is essential for a better understanding of ecosystems. For example, food web interactions can undergo severe changes caused by the invasion of non-indigenous species. However, an exact identification of field predator-prey interactions is difficult in many cases. These analyses are often based on a visual evaluation of gut content or the analysis of stable isotope ratios (&#948;15N and &#948;13C). Such methods require comprehensive knowledge about, respectively, morphologic diversity or isotopic signature from individual prey organisms, leading to obstacles in the exact identification of prey organisms. Visual gut content analyses especially underestimate soft bodied prey organisms, because maceration, ingestion and digestion of prey organisms make identification of specific species difficult. Hence, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based strategies, for example the use of group-specific primer sets, provide a powerful tool for the investigation of food web interactions. Here, we describe detailed protocols to investigate the gut contents of macroinvertebrate consumers from the field using group-specific primer sets for nuclear ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA). DNA can be extracted either from whole specimens (in the case of small taxa) or out of gut contents of specimens collected in the field. Presence and functional efficiency of the DNA templates need to be confirmed directly from the tested individual using universal primer sets targeting the respective subunit of DNA. We also demonstrate that consumed prey can be determined further down to species level via PCR with unmodified group-specific primers combined with subsequent single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analyses using polyacrylamide gels. Furthermore, we show that the use of different fluorescent dyes as labels enables parallel screening for DNA fragments of different prey groups from multiple gut content samples via automated fragment analysis.

Most common gut content analyses of macroinvertebrates are visual. Requiring intense knowledge about morphological diversity of prey organisms, they miss soft bodied prey and, due to strong comminution of prey, are nearly impossible for some organisms, including amphipods. We provide detailed, novel genetic approaches for macroinvertebrate prey identification in the diet of amphipods.

आनुवंशिक आंत सामग्री के लिए प्रयोगशाला प्रोटोकॉल समूह विशिष्ट rDNA प्राइमरों का उपयोग जलीय Macroinvertebrates का विश्लेषण

Analyzing food webs is essential for a better understanding of ecosystems. For example, food web interactions can undergo severe changes caused by the ...

Simple Homemade Tools to Handle Fruit Flies&#8212;Drosophila melanogaster

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is widely used both in biological research and biology education. Handling adult flies is common but difficult in practice, as adult flies fly. Demonstrated here is how to make some simple and cost-effective tools to address difficult issues in the handling of Drosophila. Holes in foam stoppers are made and pipette tips or funnels are inserted into the holes. Flies then move only in one direction into the pipette tip/funnel assemblage, allowing efficient control of the transfer of adult Drosophila into or out of a vial. Existing protocols have been modified for cool-anesthetizing flies by chilling in crushed ice and transferring them onto a cold, hard icepack surface. The icepack is covered with a piece of medical gauze that keeps immobilized flies from the condensed water when examined under a stereomicroscope. The flies are finally euthanized for counting and sorting or discarded by microwaving. A bottle-shaped cage has also been developed for collecting eggs, as well as a labor-saving device and accompanying protocol for cleaning glass culture vials.

Simple Homemade Tools to Handle Fruit Flies&amp;#8212;&lt;em&gt;Drosophila melanogaster&lt;/em&gt;

Described here is the use of several homemade tools to transfer, chill, and kill adult Drosophila, as well as to clean glass culture vials and collect eggs. These tools are easy to make and are rather efficient in handling Drosophila.

फल मक्खी को संभालने के लिए सरल घर का बना उपकरण ]Drosophila मेलेनोगैस्टर

The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is widely used both in biological research and biology education. Handling adult flies is common but difficult in ...

Topical Application Bioassay to Quantify Insecticide Toxicity for Mosquitoes and Fruit Flies

The continued use of insecticides for public health and agriculture has led to widespread insecticide resistance and hampering of control methods. Insecticide resistance surveillance of mosquito populations is typically done through Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) bottle bioassays or World Health Organization (WHO) tube tests. However, these methods can result in a high degree of variability in mortality data due to variable insecticide contact with&#160;the insect, the relatively small numbers of organisms tested, extensive variation in mass between populations, and constantly changing environmental conditions, leading to variable outcomes. This paper presents the topical application bioassay, adapted as a high-throughput phenotypic bioassay for both mosquitoes and fruit flies, to test large numbers of insects along&#160;a range of insecticide concentrations.
This assay 1) ensures consistent treatment and insecticide contact with every organism, 2) produces highly specific dose-response curves that account for differences in average mass between strains and sexes (which is particularly important for field-collected organisms), and 3) allows for the calculation of statistically rigorous median lethal doses (LD50), which are necessary for resistance ratio comparisons-an alternative surveillance approach from diagnostic dose mortality, which is also used for larvicide resistance surveillance. This assay will be a complementary tool for accurately phenotyping mosquito populations and, as illustrated using fruit flies, is easily adaptable for use with other insects. We argue that this assay will help fill the gap between genotypic and phenotypic insecticide resistance in multiple insect species.

We describe the methodology and importance of the topical application bioassay to measure insecticide susceptibility in mosquitoes and fruit flies. The presented assay is high-throughput, utilizes insect mass-thus allowing for calculating a mass-relativized lethal dose instead of concentration-and likely has lower variability than other similar methods.

सामयिक अनुप्रयोग Bioassay मच्छरों और फल मक्खियों के लिए कीटनाशक विषाक्तता की मात्रा निर्धारित करने के लिए

The continued use of insecticides for public health and agriculture has led to widespread insecticide resistance and hampering of control methods. ...

Protocols for CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis of the Oriental Fruit Fly Bactrocera dorsalis

The Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, is a highly invasive and adaptive pest species that causes damage to citrus and over 150 other fruit crops worldwide. Since adult fruit flies have great flight capacity and females lay their eggs under the skins of fruit, insecticides requiring direct contact with the pest usually perform poorly in the field. With the development of molecular biological tools and high-throughput sequencing technology, many scientists are attempting to develop environmentally friendly pest management strategies. These include RNAi or gene editing-based pesticides that downregulate or silence genes (molecular targets), such as olfactory genes involved in searching behavior, in various insect pests. To adapt these strategies for Oriental fruit fly control, effective methods for functional gene research are needed. Genes with critical functions in the survival and reproduction of B. dorsalis serve as good molecular targets for gene knockdown and/or silencing. The CRISPR/Cas9 system is a reliable technique used for gene editing, especially in insects. This paper presents a systematic method for CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis of B. dorsalis, including the design and synthesis of guide RNAs, collecting embryos, embryo injection, insect rearing, and mutant screening. These protocols will serve as a useful guide for generating mutant flies for researchers interested in functional gene studies in B. dorsalis.

Protocols for CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis of the Oriental Fruit Fly Bactrocera dorsalis

This paper presents the step-by-step protocols for CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis of the Oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis. Detailed steps provided by this standardized protocol will serve as a useful guide for generating mutant flies for functional gene studies in B. dorsalis.

ओरिएंटल फ्रूट फ्लाई बैक्ट्रोसेरा डोरसेलिस के CRISPR/Cas9 म्यूटेनेसिस के लिए प्रोटोकॉल

The Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, is a highly invasive and adaptive pest species that causes damage to citrus and over 150 other fruit crops ...