Name: non-aqueous electrode processing and construction of lithium-ion coin cells
Uploaded: 2016-02-01T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells at JoVE.com

이 작품은 재정적으로 텍사스 A &amp; M 대학 교수 연구 개시 승인 (무 케르)와 텍사스 주립 대학 창업 자금 (로즈)에 의해 지원됩니다.

이 프로토콜에 사용되는 용매, 시약, 또는 건조 분말 중 하나를 사용하는 경우에는주의가 필요합니다. 모든 MSDS 시트를 읽고 적절한 안전 조치를 취할. 표준 안전 장비는 장갑, 보호 안경 및 실험실 코트를 포함한다. 1. 음극 준비 주 : 음극 제조 공정의 개략도가도 1에 제시되어있다. <img alt="그림 1"...

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습식 혼합 스테이지들의 최적화 된 영향 전극의 균일 성 및 밀착성 슬러리 점도 및 코팅 능력에 중요하다. 여기에서 고전 단 혼합 방법은 용매, 첨가제, 바인더, 및 활성 물질이 바이알 내에 존재하는 유리 볼의 움직임을 활용 한 운동을 함께 혼합되는 경우, 사용된다. 마그네틱 스터 방법에 비해,이 혼합 방법은 훨씬 더 빠른 시간 혼합의 이점을 제공한다. 점성 솔루션을 효과적으로 혼합 될이 외?...

리튬 이온 전지는 에너지 저장 장치 1-4의 계속 증가하는 요구를 충족시키기 유망한 소스를 나타낸다. LIBS의 용량의 향상은 전기 차량 -5,6-의 유효 범위를 개선 할뿐만 아니라, 결과적으로 격자 에너지 저장 응용 프로그램 (7)에 사용 LIBS의 생존 능력을 증가 방전의 깊이를 감소시켜 그 수명을 향상하지 않을 것이다. 원래 1970 년대 8 보청기 사용, 동전 세포는 오늘 일반적으로 신규 및 기존 전극 재료의 개발과 평가에 사용됩니다. 배터리 작은 폼팩터의 하나로서, 이러한 세포 학술 연구 환경에서 배터리를 생성하는 간단하고 효과적인 방법을 나타낸다. 일반적인 리튬 이온 배터리는 양극, 음극, 집 전체, 및 양극과 음극의 단락을 방지하는 다공질 세퍼레이터로 구성되어있다. 리튬 이온 전지의 작동 중에, IONS과 전자는 모바일이다. 방전시, 이온은 다공질 세퍼레이터를 통해 음극 (양극)으로부터 및 양극 또는 음극으로 이동한다. 한편, 전자는 최종적으로 캐소드 측에 이온과 재결합, 외부 회로를 통해, 전류 집 전체를 통해 이동한다. 이온 및 전자 전달과 관련된 저항을 감소시키기 위해, 구성 요소는 적절하게 배향 될 필요 - 거리 이온의 이동이 최소화되어야한다. 일반적으로 이러한 구성 요소는 &quot;샌드위치&quot;구성을 결합됩니다. 전기 자동차, 휴대 전화, 가전 제품에 사용되는 전지는 나선형으로 감겨 진 또는 접힌 전지의 폼 팩터에 따라 큰 샌드위치되어 이루어져있다. 이러한 유형의 세포는 높은 비용을 초래하지 않고 작은 규모로 제조하기가 매우 어려울 수있다. 그러나, 코인 셀에 셀 내의 단 하나의 샌드위치가있다. 특수 장비는 전극을 작성하는 것이 여전히 필요하다 비록<html> N 코인 셀, 자신이 신속하게 통제 된 환경 내 손으로 조립 및 밀봉 할 수있는 세포. 배터리의 성능은, 유형에 상관없이, 양극과 음극, 전해질의 선택, 셀 아키텍처 4,9-13 형성 재료에 의존한다. 전형적인 LIB 전극 활물질, 도전 조제, 고분자 바인더 및 전해질로 가득 보이드 공간을 리 - 함유의 조합으로 구성된다. - 종종 거의주의를 부여하는 공정, 건조 분말 혼합, 습식 혼합, 기판 제조, 필름 응용 및 건조 : 전극 처리는 다섯 가지 주요 단계로 구성 될 수있다. 이들 공정 단계를 사용하여 전극을 제조 할 때, 최종 목표는 활물질, 도전 조제, 바인더로 이루어진 균일 한 전극 막을 달성하는 것이다. 이 균일 한 분포는 LIBS 14-18의 최적의 성능에 매우 중요합니다. NT는 &quot;&gt;이 가이드는 신규 및 기존 전극 재료의 평가를 위해 코인 셀을 제조하는 에너지와 교통 과학 연구소에서 텍사스 A &amp; M (ETSL)에서 텍사스 주립 대학에서 사용되는 단계를 나타냅니다. 많은 소스에 설명되어있는 기본 단계를 넘어 우리는 종종 유사한 방법 문서와 많은 출판물에서 제외되는 중요한 세부 사항을주의하는 중요한 단계에서 우리 자신의 전문 지식을 포함하고있다. 또한, 우리의 실험실에서 사용되는 기본 물리적, 전기 화학적 방법 (정전류 자전거 및 전기 임피던스 분광법 (EIS)) 내 밝혀된다.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="992">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">LiNiMNCoO2 (NMC, 1:1:1)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Targray</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">PLB-H1</td>
			<td style="width:291px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">CNERGY Super C-65</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Timcal</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Kynar</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Flex 2801</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:405px;">1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone anhydrous, 99.5% NMP</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">328634</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">1.0 M LiPF6 in EC/DEC (1:1 by vol)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">BASF</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">50316366</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Celgard 2500 Separator</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">EQ-bsf-0025-60C</td>
			<td>25um thick; Polypropylene</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Aluminum Foil</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">EQ-bcaf-15u-280</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Lithium Ribbon</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">320080</td>
			<td>0.75 mm thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">2-Propanol, ACS reagent, &#8805;99.5%</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">190764</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Acetone, ACS reagent, &#8805;99.5%</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">179124</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Stainless Steel CR2032 Coin Cell Kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Pred Materials</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td>case, cap, and PP gasket</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Stainless Steel Spacer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Pred Materials</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td>15.5 mm diameter x 0.5 mm thickness</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Stainless Steel Wave Spring&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Pred Materials</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td>15 mm diameter x 1.4 mm height</td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Analytical Scale</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Ohaus</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Adventurer AX</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Agate Mortar and Pestle</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">89037-492</td>
			<td>5 inch diameter</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Tube Drive</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">IKA</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">3645000</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">20 ml Stirring Tube</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">IKA&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">3703000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Glass balls</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">8996K25</td>
			<td>6 mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Automatic Film Applicator</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Elcometer</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">K4340M10-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Doctor Blade</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Elcometer</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">K0003580M005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Die Set</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Mayhew</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">66000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Vacuum Oven</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Vacuum Pump</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Laboratory Press</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">YLJ-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Hydraulic Crimper</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">MSK-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Glovebox</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MBraun</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">LABstar</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Battery Cycler</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Arbin Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">BT2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Potentiostat/Galvanostat/EIS</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Biologic</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">VMP3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

non-aqueous electrode processing and construction of lithium-ion coin cells

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational analysis. Testing of lithium-ion batteries in an academic setting has taken on several forms, but at the most basic level lies the coin cell construction. In traditional LIB electrode preparation, a multi-phase slurry composed of active material, binder, and conductive additive is cast out onto a substrate. An electrode disc can then be punched from the dried sheet and used in the construction of a coin cell for electrochemical evaluation. Utilization of the potential of the active material in a battery is critically dependent on the microstructure of the electrode, as an appropriate distribution of the primary components are crucial to ensuring optimal electrical conductivity, porosity, and tortuosity, such that electrochemical and transport interaction is optimized. Processing steps ranging from the combination of dry powder, wet mixing, and drying can all critically affect multi-phase interactions that influence the microstructure formation. Electrochemical probing necessitates the construction of electrodes and coin cells with the utmost care and precision. This paper aims at providing a step-by-step guide of non-aqueous electrode processing and coin cell construction for lithium-ion batteries within an academic setting and with emphasis on deciphering the influence of drying and calendaring.

제대로 캐스트 전극 시트는 표면 외관에 유니폼을 표시하고 제대로 집을 준수해야합니다. 일반적으로 전극 시트의 박리는 불량한 기판의 에칭, 또는 초기 혼합 단계에서 작은 NMP를 갖는 하나에 의해 발생된다. 대안으로, 너무 많은 NMP 바람직하지 않다 기공율의 높은 정도를 표시하는 시트를 일으킬 수있다. 마지막으로 세 번째 패턴은 풀링 발생 나타나는 전극 표면에 관?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells at JoVE.com

Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells

리튬 이온 코인 셀의 비수 전극 가공 및 건설

Non-aqueous electrode processing is central to the construction of coin cells and the evaluation of new electrode chemistries for lithium-ion batteries. A step-by-step guide to the basic practices needed as an electrochemical engineer working with batteries in an academic experimental setting is furnished.

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational ...

The overall goal of this experimental demonstration is to provide a step-by-step procedural guideline for lithium-ion battery electrode preparation and coin cell assembly, along with electrochemical analysis and characterization that can be performed in an academic lab setting. This demonstration highlights the importance of electroprocessing on the performance of lithium-ion batteries and its electrochemical attributes. One of the key highlights is that we're trying to emphasize the importance of evaporation in the drying step for lithium battery electrode processing and fabrication.We hope that this demonstration will provide a step-by-step guideline to students and alike who are attempting to initiate the program in electrochemical engineering, and especially in the ADR family storage. To begin this procedure, cut a 4.5 inch by 12 inch sheet of 15-micrometer thick aluminum foil, using a paper cutter. Spray acetone on the surface of a clean plastic board, and then place the foil sheet onto the board.Next, spray a generous amount of acetone on the surface of the foil, and begin to scrub the entire surface with small semicircle motions, using a scotch pad. Spray additional acetone on the surface, and wipe down the residue with a paper towel. Rinse the etched aluminum sheet with deionized water on the casting side.Flip the sheet and repeat the same procedure in the bright side, and again in the dull side. After rinsing with isopropyl alcohol, place the cleaned aluminum sheet in between two paper towels. Then, place the paper towels and cleaned aluminum sheet between two flat plates and compress, using a heavy object, for approximately 20 minutes.Following this, place 0.875 grams of lithium manganese cobalt oxide, or NMC, and 0.25 grams of carbon black into a agate mortar and pestle. Lightly mix the materials together without grinding. After a mixture starts to form, mill by hand in the mortar and pestle for three to five minutes, until a uniform powder is visibly observed.Using a piece of white paper, transfer the mixed power into a disposable mixing tube. Then, add 16 glass balls and 5.5 milliliters of 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, or NMP, to the powder. Place the disposable tube onto a tube drive station and lock into place.Turn the drive on and slowly increase to the maximum speed, allowing the contents to mix for 15 minutes. When mixing is complete, add 1.25 grams of a 10%polyvinylidene difluoride in NMP solution directly to the tube. After placing the tube back onto the drive, allow the contents to mix for eight minutes.Next, apply a layer of isopropyl alcohol to the surface of the film applicator and place the dried aluminum substrate, shiny side down, onto the surface. Press out the excess isopropyl alcohol with a folded paper towel until all the wrinkles and solvent are removed. After removing the mixing tube from the tube drive, pour the slurry onto the surface of the substrate in a two-to three-inch line, approximately one inch from the top of the substrate.Then, set the casting speed to 20 millimeters per second and activate the casting arm of the film applicator. Once casting is complete, lift the cast electrode from the surface of the film applicator using a thin piece of cardboard to ensure no wrinkles form on the sheet. After allowing the electrode sheet to dry for 16 hours at room temperature, dry it at 70 degrees Celsius for approximately three hours in an oven.At this point, place the dried electrode sheet onto the previously cleaned sheet of aluminum metal. Gently place a 1/2 inch hole punch onto a region of the sheet with a uniform surface. Slowly apply pressure to the punch, and roll the pressure around the edges of the punch, to ensure a clean cut.Remove the cut electrode from the sheet with clean plastic tweezers, and place it into a labeled vial with the electrode surface facing out. Then, further dry the electrodes in a vacuum oven at 120 degrees Celsius, at minus 0.1 megaPascal, for 12 hours to remove any remaining moisture. After removing the electrodes from the oven, weigh them within 0.0001 grams.In a glove box, place a coin cell case into a small weigh boat and place the cathode into the center of the coin cell case. Apply one to two drops of electrolyte to the center of the electrode, and apply one drop on opposite sides of the rim of the case. Place a single 3/4th inch separator onto the surface of the electrode.Then, place the gasket into the case, with the flat side facing down and the lip side facing up. Apply two to three drops of electrolyte to the center of the cell and place the prepared counter electrode onto the center, with the lithium side facing down. Place the wave spring on top of the centered counter electrode.Following this, fill the cell to the brim with electrolyte, until it forms a curved, convex meniscus that covers most of the wave spring surface. Carefully place the coin cell cap on top of the cell, utilizing the tweezers to hold the cap centered vertically over the cell. Press down on the cap until it sets into the lip of the gasket.Transfer the cell to the crimper, and ensure that the cell is centered in the groove of the crimping die. Crimp the cell to a pressure of approximately 6.2 megaPascal, and release. Clean off any spilled electrolyte.When finished, remove the cell from the glove box. After removing the cell from the glove box, clean up any excess electrolyte and label the cell. At this point, connect the clean cell to the battery cycler.Ensure that the terminals are correctly connected by measuring the open circuit potential. With a measured electrode mass of 0.0090 grams an aluminum disk mass of 0.0054 grams, and a rated capacity of 155 milliAmp hours per gram, determine the desired current. Next, set the schedule on the cycler to charge and discharge the cell between the upper and lower voltage levels of 4.2 volts and 2.8 volts, respectively.Cycle the cell four times at a rate of C over 10. Then, charge the cell once at C over 10. Following the fifth C over 10 charge, perform EIS on the cell after resting for one hour.Then, place the cell back on the cycler and discharge at C over 10. After performing another EIS analysis and placing the cell back onto the cycler, cycle the cell five times at rates of C over five, C, two C, five C, and 10 C, followed by 100 one C cycles. Determine the specific capacity of the cells at each C rate, by dividing the capacity in milliAmp hours by the mass of active material present in the cathode.Calculate the capacity retention by dividing the average specific capacity of the last five one C cycles by the average specific capacity of the first five one C cycles. A properly cast electrode sheet should appear uniform and adhere to the current collector. Flaking of the sheet is caused by poor etching or too little NMP.And too much NMP can cause a higher degree of porosity. Lastly, a non-uniform surface can be caused by material pooling during drying. When the cell is not properly sealed, atmospheric exposure will cause swelling of the lithium, which causes the cell to pop open.SEM imaging of the electrode surface reveals the complexity of the cathode. The large particles are the active material, and the remaining material is polyvinylidene difluoride and carbon black. Representative cycling results for a sheet that was dried too fast and one that was properly dried are shown here.The specific energy of the cells can be determined as the area under the discharge curve. The slope of the tail in the EIS data indicates resistance due to diffusion, and the semicircle represents the number of resistances due to charge transfer resistances. The quickly dried sheet has a larger radius, indicating higher charge transfer resistance.The casting thickness, slurry viscosity and composition, and the degree of calendaring all have a direct impact on the porosity and thickness of an electrode sheet. A thinner sheet allows for shorter diffusion distances. And the porosity can be optimized to allow for more efficient transfer.Once mastered, the method can be accomplished within 24 hours if performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it's imperative to wear safety gloves and maintain clean electrode sheets, followed by final cell assembly in the glove box. Following this procedure with the assembled coin cell, electrochemical test, such as charge-discharge cycling, cycling voltometry, and electrochemical impedance spectrometry can be performed routinely to categorize cell behavior and performance characteristics under different cycling and environmental conditions.This experimental exploration highlights the importance of electroprocessing on the cell performance and electrochemical attributes. After watching through demonstration video, you should have a good understanding of the essential steps in making electrode and coin cell assembly, followed by the electrochemical test for lithium-ion batteries in the lab. Don't forget that the electrolyte can easily react with oxygen and water, and hence, the coin cell assembly must be done in the glove box.

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Construction and Testing of Coin Cells of Lithium Ion Batteries

건설과 리튬 이온 배터리의 동전 전지의 테스트

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime.  Lithium ion ...

연구

공학

Probing and Mapping Electrode Surfaces in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

고체 산화물 연료 전지의 전극 표면을 탐색 및 매핑

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen ...

Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques

방사광 기술을 사용하여 리튬 이온과 나트륨 이온 배터리 용 전극 재료의 특성

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. ...

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

제자리 중성자 분말 회절에서 사용자 정의 - 만든 리튬 이온 배터리를 사용하여

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric ...

Wicking Tests for Unidirectional Fabrics: Measurements of Capillary Parameters to Evaluate Capillary Pressure in Liquid Composite Molding Processes

단방향 직물에 대한 테스트를 심지 : 모세관 매개 변수의 측정은 액체 복합 성형 공정에서 모세관 압력을 평가하는

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify ...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

집중 된 이온 빔 제작 현장에서 테스트 LiPON 기반 고체 리튬-이온 Nanobatteries

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of ...

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) of Metal-Ceramic Components

Fused Filament Fabrication FFF of Metal-Ceramic Components

금속-세라믹 부품의 융합된 필 라 멘 트 제조 (FFF)

Technical ceramics are widely used for industrial and research applications, as well as for consumer goods. Today, the demand for complex geometries with ...

Three-electrode Coin Cell Preparation and Electrodeposition Analytics for Lithium-ion Batteries

3 전극 동전 전지 준비 및 Electrodeposition 리튬-이온 배터리에 대 한 분석

As lithium-ion batteries find use in high energy and power applications, such as in electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, monitoring the degradation and ...

Expression of Cementitious Pore Solution and the Analysis of Its Chemical Composition and Resistivity Using X-ray Fluorescence

The goal of this method is to determine the chemical composition and electrical resistivity of cementitious pore solution expressed from a fresh paste ...

Preparation of Graphene Liquid Cells for the Observation of Lithium-ion Battery Material

그래 액체 셀 리튬-이온 배터리 재료의 관찰에 대 한 준비

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between ...