Name: non-aqueous electrode processing and construction of lithium-ion coin cells
Uploaded: 2016-02-01T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells at JoVE.com

This work is financially supported by Texas A&#38;M University faculty research initiation grant (Mukherjee) and Texas State University start-up funding (Rhodes).

Caution should be exercised when using any of the solvents, reagents, or dry powders utilized in this protocol. Read all MSDS sheets and take appropriate safety measures. Standard safety equipment includes gloves, safety glasses, and a lab coat.
1. Cathode Preparation
Note: The schematic overview of the cathode fabrication process is presented in Figure 1.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp...

<ol>
	<li>Wagner, R., Preschitschek, N., Passerini, S., Leker, J., Winter, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+research+trends+and+prospects+among+the+various+materials+and+designs+used+in+lithium-based+batteries.">Current research trends and prospects among the various materials and designs used in lithium-based batteries.</a> J Appl Electrochem. 43, 481-496 (2013).</li><li>Whittingham, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lithium+batteries+and+cathode+materials.">Lithium batteries and cathode materials.</a> Chem Rev. 104, 4271-4301 (2004).</li><li>Ellis, B. L., Lee, K. T., Nazar, L. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Positive+Electrode+Materials+for+Li-Ion+and+Li-Batteries.">Positive Electrode Materials for Li-Ion and Li-Batteries.</a> Chem Mater. 22, 691-714 (2010).</li><li>Tarascon, J. M., Armand, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Issues+and+challenges+facing+rechargeable+lithium+batteries.">Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries.</a> Nature. 414, 359-367 (2001).</li><li>Smith, K., Wang, C. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Power+and+thermal+characterization+of+a+lithium-ion+battery+pack+for+hybrid-electric+vehicles.">Power and thermal characterization of a lithium-ion battery pack for hybrid-electric vehicles.</a> J Power Sources. 160, 662-673 (2006).</li><li>Lu, L. G., Han, X. B., Li, J. Q., Hua, J. F., Ouyang, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+on+the+key+issues+for+lithium-ion+battery+management+in+electric+vehicles.">A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles.</a> J Power Sources. 226, 272-288 (2013).</li><li>Dunn, B., Kamath, H., Tarascon, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrical+Energy+Storage+for+the+Grid:+A+Battery+of+Choices.">Electrical Energy Storage for the Grid: A Battery of Choices.</a> Science. 334, 928-935 (2011).</li><li>Cich, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Button+Cell+battery.">Button Cell battery.</a> US patent. , (1972).</li><li>Elul, S., Cohen, Y., Aurbach, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+influence+of+geometry+in+2D+simulation+on+the+charge/discharge+processes+in+Li-ion+batteries.">The influence of geometry in 2D simulation on the charge/discharge processes in Li-ion batteries.</a> J Electroanal Chem. 682, 53-65 (2012).</li><li>Buqa, H., Goers, D., Holzapfel, M., Spahr, M. E., Novak, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+rate+capability+of+graphite+negative+electrodes+for+lithium-ion+batteries.">High rate capability of graphite negative electrodes for lithium-ion batteries.</a> J Electrochem Soc. 152, A474-A481 (2005).</li><li>Chen, Y. H., Wang, C. W., Zhang, X., Sastry, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Porous+cathode+optimization+for+lithium+cells:+Ionic+and+electronic+conductivity,+capacity,+and+selection+of+materials.">Porous cathode optimization for lithium cells: Ionic and electronic conductivity, capacity, and selection of materials.</a> J Power Sources. 195, 2851-2862 (2010).</li><li>Arora, P., Doyle, M., Gozdz, A. S., White, R. E., Newman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+between+computer+simulations+and+experimental+data+for+high-rate+discharges+of+plastic+lithium-ion+batteries.">Comparison between computer simulations and experimental data for high-rate discharges of plastic lithium-ion batteries.</a> J Power Sources. 88, 219-231 (2000).</li><li>Dillon, S. J., Sun, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microstructural+design+considerations+for+Li-ion+battery+systems.">Microstructural design considerations for Li-ion battery systems.</a> Curr Opin Solid St M. 16, 153-162 (2012).</li><li>Harris, S. J., Lu, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+Inhomogeneities-Nanoscale+to+Mesoscale-on+the+Durability+of+Li-Ion+Batteries.">Effects of Inhomogeneities-Nanoscale to Mesoscale-on the Durability of Li-Ion Batteries.</a> J Phys Chem C. 117, 6481-6492 (2013).</li><li>Liu, G., Zheng, H., Song, X., Battaglia, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Particles+and+Polymer+Binder+Interaction:+A+Controlling+Factor+in+Lithium-Ion+Electrode+Performance.">Particles and Polymer Binder Interaction: A Controlling Factor in Lithium-Ion Electrode Performance.</a> J Electrochem Soc. 159, A214-A221 (2012).</li><li>Zheng, H. H., Yang, R. Z., Liu, G., Song, X. Y., Battaglia, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cooperation+between+Active+Material,+Polymeric+Binder+and+Conductive+Carbon+Additive+in+Lithium+Ion+Battery+Cathode.">Cooperation between Active Material, Polymeric Binder and Conductive Carbon Additive in Lithium Ion Battery Cathode.</a> J Phys Chem C. 116, 4875-4882 (2012).</li><li>Liu, Z. X., Battaglia, V., Mukherjee, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mesoscale+Elucidation+of+the+Influence+of+Mixing+Sequence+in+Electrode+Processing.">Mesoscale Elucidation of the Influence of Mixing Sequence in Electrode Processing.</a> Langmuir. 30, 15102-15113 (2014).</li><li>Liu, Z. X., Mukherjee, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microstructure+Evolution+in+Lithium-Ion+Battery+Electrode+Processing.">Microstructure Evolution in Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Processing.</a> J Electrochem Soc. 161, E3248-E3258 (2014).</li><li>Zheng, H. H., Tan, L., Liu, G., Song, X. Y., Battaglia, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calendering+effects+on+the+physical+and+electrochemical+properties+of+Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O-2+cathode.">Calendering effects on the physical and electrochemical properties of Li[Ni1/3Mn1/3Co1/3]O-2 cathode.</a> J Power Sources. 208, 52-57 (2012).</li><li>Zheng, H. H., Li, J., Song, X. Y., Liu, G., Battaglia, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comprehensive+understanding+of+electrode+thickness+effects+on+the+electrochemical+performances+of+Li-ion+battery+cathodes.">A comprehensive understanding of electrode thickness effects on the electrochemical performances of Li-ion battery cathodes.</a> Electrochim Acta. 71, 258-265 (2012).</li><li>Marks, T., Trussler, S., Smith, A. J., Xiong, D. J., Dahn, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Guide+to+Li-Ion+Coin-Cell+Electrode+Making+for+Academic+Researchers.">A Guide to Li-Ion Coin-Cell Electrode Making for Academic Researchers.</a> J Electrochem Soc. 158, A51-A58 (2011).</li><li>Li, C. C., Wang, Y. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Binder+Distributions+in+Water-Based+and+Organic-Based+LiCoO2+Electrode+Sheets+and+Their+Effects+on+Cell+Performance.">Binder Distributions in Water-Based and Organic-Based LiCoO2 Electrode Sheets and Their Effects on Cell Performance.</a> J Electrochem Soc. 158, A1361-A1370 (2011).</li></ol>

The optimization of the wet mixing stages are crucial to the slurry viscosity and coating ability, which impacts the uniformity and adhesion of the electrode. Here a high-shear mixing method is utilized, where the solvent, additive, binder, and active material are mixed together utilizing the kinetic motions of the glass balls present in the vials. This mixing technique offers the benefit of much more rapid mixing times as compared to a magnetic stirrer method. Beyond this, this high shear mixing allows for more viscous ...

Lithium-ion batteries represent a promising source to fulfill the ever increasing requirements of energy storage devices1-4. Improvements in the capacity of LIBs would not only improve the effective range of electric vehicles5,6, but also improve their cycle life by reducing the depth of discharge, which in turn increases the viability of LIBs for use in grid energy storage applications7.
Originally used for hearing aids in the 1970s8, coin cells today are commonly used in the development and evaluation of new and existing electrode materials. As one of the smallest form factors for batteries, these cells represent a simple and effective way to create batteries in an academic research setting. A typical Lithium-Ion battery consists of a cathode, anode, current collectors, and a porous separator that prevents shorting of the anode and cathode. During the operation of a Lithium-Ion battery, ions and electrons are mobile. During discharge, ions travel from the negative electrode (anode) through the porous separator and into the positive electrode, or cathode. Meanwhile, electrons travel through the current collector, across the external circuit, finally recombining with the ions on the cathode side. In order to reduce any resistances associated with ion and electron transfer, the components need to be properly oriented &#8212; the distance ions travel should be minimized. Typically these components are combined a &#34;sandwich&#34; configuration. Batteries used in electric vehicles, cell phones, and consumer electronics consist of large sandwiches that are spirally wound or folded, depending on the form factor of the battery. These types of cells can be very difficult to manufacture on small scales without incurring high costs. However, in a coin cell there is only a single sandwich within the cell. Although specialized equipment is still necessary to create the electrodes in coin cells, the cells themselves can be quickly assembled by hand and sealed within a controlled environment.
The performance of batteries, regardless of type, is dependent on the materials that form the positive and negative electrode, the choice of electrolyte, and the cell architecture4,9-13. A typical LIB electrode is composed of a combination of Li-containing active material, conductive additive, polymeric binder, and void space that is filled with an electrolyte. Electrode processing can be organized into five main steps: dry powder mixing, wet mixing, substrate preparation, film application, and drying&#160;&#8212; a step that is often given little attention. When producing an electrode using these processing steps, the end goal is to achieve a uniform electrode film consisting of the active material, conductive additive, binder. This uniform distribution is critical to optimal performance of LIBs14-18.
This guide represents the steps utilized at Texas A&#38;M in the Energy and Transport Sciences Laboratory (ETSL) and at Texas State University to manufacture coin cells for the evaluation of new and existing electrode materials. Beyond the basic steps found documented in many sources, we have included our own expertise at critical steps, noting important details that are often left out of similar methods documents and many publications. Additionally, the primary physical and electrochemical methods utilized in our lab (galvanostatic cycling and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)) are elucidated within.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="992">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">LiNiMNCoO2 (NMC, 1:1:1)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Targray</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">PLB-H1</td>
			<td style="width:291px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">CNERGY Super C-65</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Timcal</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Kynar</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Flex 2801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:405px;">1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone anhydrous, 99.5% NMP</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">328634</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">1.0 M LiPF6 in EC/DEC (1:1 by vol)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">BASF</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">50316366</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Celgard 2500 Separator</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">EQ-bsf-0025-60C</td>
			<td>25um thick; Polypropylene</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Aluminum Foil</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">EQ-bcaf-15u-280</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Lithium Ribbon</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">320080</td>
			<td>0.75 mm thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">2-Propanol, ACS reagent, &#8805;99.5%</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">190764</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Acetone, ACS reagent, &#8805;99.5%</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">179124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Stainless Steel CR2032 Coin Cell Kit&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Pred Materials</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td>case, cap, and PP gasket</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Stainless Steel Spacer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Pred Materials</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td>15.5 mm diameter x 0.5 mm thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Stainless Steel Wave Spring&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Pred Materials</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td>15 mm diameter x 1.4 mm height</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Analytical Scale</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Ohaus</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">Adventurer AX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Agate Mortar and Pestle</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">89037-492</td>
			<td>5 inch diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Tube Drive</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">IKA</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">3645000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">20 ml Stirring Tube</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">IKA&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">3703000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Glass balls</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">8996K25</td>
			<td>6 mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Automatic Film Applicator</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Elcometer</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">K4340M10-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Doctor Blade</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Elcometer</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">K0003580M005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Die Set</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Mayhew</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">66000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Vacuum Oven</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Vacuum Pump</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Laboratory Press</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">YLJ-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Hydraulic Crimper</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">MSK-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Glovebox</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">MBraun</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">LABstar</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Battery Cycler</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Arbin Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">BT2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:405px;">Potentiostat/Galvanostat/EIS</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Biologic</td>
			<td style="width:139px;">VMP3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

non-aqueous electrode processing and construction of lithium-ion coin cells

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational analysis. Testing of lithium-ion batteries in an academic setting has taken on several forms, but at the most basic level lies the coin cell construction. In traditional LIB electrode preparation, a multi-phase slurry composed of active material, binder, and conductive additive is cast out onto a substrate. An electrode disc can then be punched from the dried sheet and used in the construction of a coin cell for electrochemical evaluation. Utilization of the potential of the active material in a battery is critically dependent on the microstructure of the electrode, as an appropriate distribution of the primary components are crucial to ensuring optimal electrical conductivity, porosity, and tortuosity, such that electrochemical and transport interaction is optimized. Processing steps ranging from the combination of dry powder, wet mixing, and drying can all critically affect multi-phase interactions that influence the microstructure formation. Electrochemical probing necessitates the construction of electrodes and coin cells with the utmost care and precision. This paper aims at providing a step-by-step guide of non-aqueous electrode processing and coin cell construction for lithium-ion batteries within an academic setting and with emphasis on deciphering the influence of drying and calendaring.

A properly cast electrode sheet should appear uniform in surface appearance and properly adhere to the current collector. Typically flaking of the electrode sheet is caused by either poor etching of the substrate, or having to little NMP in the initial mixing stage. Alternatively, too much NMP can cause the sheet to display a higher degree of porosity, which is not desirable. Lastly, a third pattern can be observed on the electrode surface, where pooling appears to occur. Interactions wit...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells at JoVE.com

Non-aqueous Electrode Processing and Construction of Lithium-ion Coin Cells

Non-aqueous electrode processing is central to the construction of coin cells and the evaluation of new electrode chemistries for lithium-ion batteries. A step-by-step guide to the basic practices needed as an electrochemical engineer working with batteries in an academic experimental setting is furnished.

Research into new and improved materials to be utilized in lithium-ion batteries (LIB) necessitates an experimental counterpart to any computational ...

The overall goal of this experimental demonstration is to provide a step-by-step procedural guideline for lithium-ion battery electrode preparation and coin cell assembly, along with electrochemical analysis and characterization that can be performed in an academic lab setting. This demonstration highlights the importance of electroprocessing on the performance of lithium-ion batteries and its electrochemical attributes. One of the key highlights is that we're trying to emphasize the importance of evaporation in the drying step for lithium battery electrode processing and fabrication.We hope that this demonstration will provide a step-by-step guideline to students and alike who are attempting to initiate the program in electrochemical engineering, and especially in the ADR family storage. To begin this procedure, cut a 4.5 inch by 12 inch sheet of 15-micrometer thick aluminum foil, using a paper cutter. Spray acetone on the surface of a clean plastic board, and then place the foil sheet onto the board.Next, spray a generous amount of acetone on the surface of the foil, and begin to scrub the entire surface with small semicircle motions, using a scotch pad. Spray additional acetone on the surface, and wipe down the residue with a paper towel. Rinse the etched aluminum sheet with deionized water on the casting side.Flip the sheet and repeat the same procedure in the bright side, and again in the dull side. After rinsing with isopropyl alcohol, place the cleaned aluminum sheet in between two paper towels. Then, place the paper towels and cleaned aluminum sheet between two flat plates and compress, using a heavy object, for approximately 20 minutes.Following this, place 0.875 grams of lithium manganese cobalt oxide, or NMC, and 0.25 grams of carbon black into a agate mortar and pestle. Lightly mix the materials together without grinding. After a mixture starts to form, mill by hand in the mortar and pestle for three to five minutes, until a uniform powder is visibly observed.Using a piece of white paper, transfer the mixed power into a disposable mixing tube. Then, add 16 glass balls and 5.5 milliliters of 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, or NMP, to the powder. Place the disposable tube onto a tube drive station and lock into place.Turn the drive on and slowly increase to the maximum speed, allowing the contents to mix for 15 minutes. When mixing is complete, add 1.25 grams of a 10%polyvinylidene difluoride in NMP solution directly to the tube. After placing the tube back onto the drive, allow the contents to mix for eight minutes.Next, apply a layer of isopropyl alcohol to the surface of the film applicator and place the dried aluminum substrate, shiny side down, onto the surface. Press out the excess isopropyl alcohol with a folded paper towel until all the wrinkles and solvent are removed. After removing the mixing tube from the tube drive, pour the slurry onto the surface of the substrate in a two-to three-inch line, approximately one inch from the top of the substrate.Then, set the casting speed to 20 millimeters per second and activate the casting arm of the film applicator. Once casting is complete, lift the cast electrode from the surface of the film applicator using a thin piece of cardboard to ensure no wrinkles form on the sheet. After allowing the electrode sheet to dry for 16 hours at room temperature, dry it at 70 degrees Celsius for approximately three hours in an oven.At this point, place the dried electrode sheet onto the previously cleaned sheet of aluminum metal. Gently place a 1/2 inch hole punch onto a region of the sheet with a uniform surface. Slowly apply pressure to the punch, and roll the pressure around the edges of the punch, to ensure a clean cut.Remove the cut electrode from the sheet with clean plastic tweezers, and place it into a labeled vial with the electrode surface facing out. Then, further dry the electrodes in a vacuum oven at 120 degrees Celsius, at minus 0.1 megaPascal, for 12 hours to remove any remaining moisture. After removing the electrodes from the oven, weigh them within 0.0001 grams.In a glove box, place a coin cell case into a small weigh boat and place the cathode into the center of the coin cell case. Apply one to two drops of electrolyte to the center of the electrode, and apply one drop on opposite sides of the rim of the case. Place a single 3/4th inch separator onto the surface of the electrode.Then, place the gasket into the case, with the flat side facing down and the lip side facing up. Apply two to three drops of electrolyte to the center of the cell and place the prepared counter electrode onto the center, with the lithium side facing down. Place the wave spring on top of the centered counter electrode.Following this, fill the cell to the brim with electrolyte, until it forms a curved, convex meniscus that covers most of the wave spring surface. Carefully place the coin cell cap on top of the cell, utilizing the tweezers to hold the cap centered vertically over the cell. Press down on the cap until it sets into the lip of the gasket.Transfer the cell to the crimper, and ensure that the cell is centered in the groove of the crimping die. Crimp the cell to a pressure of approximately 6.2 megaPascal, and release. Clean off any spilled electrolyte.When finished, remove the cell from the glove box. After removing the cell from the glove box, clean up any excess electrolyte and label the cell. At this point, connect the clean cell to the battery cycler.Ensure that the terminals are correctly connected by measuring the open circuit potential. With a measured electrode mass of 0.0090 grams an aluminum disk mass of 0.0054 grams, and a rated capacity of 155 milliAmp hours per gram, determine the desired current. Next, set the schedule on the cycler to charge and discharge the cell between the upper and lower voltage levels of 4.2 volts and 2.8 volts, respectively.Cycle the cell four times at a rate of C over 10. Then, charge the cell once at C over 10. Following the fifth C over 10 charge, perform EIS on the cell after resting for one hour.Then, place the cell back on the cycler and discharge at C over 10. After performing another EIS analysis and placing the cell back onto the cycler, cycle the cell five times at rates of C over five, C, two C, five C, and 10 C, followed by 100 one C cycles. Determine the specific capacity of the cells at each C rate, by dividing the capacity in milliAmp hours by the mass of active material present in the cathode.Calculate the capacity retention by dividing the average specific capacity of the last five one C cycles by the average specific capacity of the first five one C cycles. A properly cast electrode sheet should appear uniform and adhere to the current collector. Flaking of the sheet is caused by poor etching or too little NMP.And too much NMP can cause a higher degree of porosity. Lastly, a non-uniform surface can be caused by material pooling during drying. When the cell is not properly sealed, atmospheric exposure will cause swelling of the lithium, which causes the cell to pop open.SEM imaging of the electrode surface reveals the complexity of the cathode. The large particles are the active material, and the remaining material is polyvinylidene difluoride and carbon black. Representative cycling results for a sheet that was dried too fast and one that was properly dried are shown here.The specific energy of the cells can be determined as the area under the discharge curve. The slope of the tail in the EIS data indicates resistance due to diffusion, and the semicircle represents the number of resistances due to charge transfer resistances. The quickly dried sheet has a larger radius, indicating higher charge transfer resistance.The casting thickness, slurry viscosity and composition, and the degree of calendaring all have a direct impact on the porosity and thickness of an electrode sheet. A thinner sheet allows for shorter diffusion distances. And the porosity can be optimized to allow for more efficient transfer.Once mastered, the method can be accomplished within 24 hours if performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it's imperative to wear safety gloves and maintain clean electrode sheets, followed by final cell assembly in the glove box. Following this procedure with the assembled coin cell, electrochemical test, such as charge-discharge cycling, cycling voltometry, and electrochemical impedance spectrometry can be performed routinely to categorize cell behavior and performance characteristics under different cycling and environmental conditions.This experimental exploration highlights the importance of electroprocessing on the cell performance and electrochemical attributes. After watching through demonstration video, you should have a good understanding of the essential steps in making electrode and coin cell assembly, followed by the electrochemical test for lithium-ion batteries in the lab. Don't forget that the electrolyte can easily react with oxygen and water, and hence, the coin cell assembly must be done in the glove box.

non-aqueous-electrode-processing-construction-lithium-ion-coin

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Construction and Testing of Coin Cells of Lithium Ion Batteries

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime. Lithium ion batteries have also been considered to be used in electric and hybrid vehicles1 or even electrical grid stabilization systems2. All these applications simulate a dramatic increase in the research and development of battery materials3-7, including new materials3,8, doping9, nanostructuring10-13, coatings or surface modifications14-17 and novel binders18. Consequently, an increasing number of physicists, chemists and materials scientists have recently ventured into this area. Coin cells are widely used in research laboratories to test new battery materials; even for the research and development that target large-scale and high-power applications, small coin cells are often used to test the capacities and rate capabilities of new materials in the initial stage. 
 In 2010, we started a National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored research project to investigate the surface adsorption and disordering in battery materials (grant no. DMR-1006515). In the initial stage of this project, we have struggled to learn the techniques of assembling and testing coin cells, which cannot be achieved without numerous help of other researchers in other universities (through frequent calls, email exchanges and two site visits). Thus, we feel that it is beneficial to document, by both text and video, a protocol of assembling and testing a coin cell, which will help other new researchers in this field. This effort represents the "Broader Impact" activities of our NSF project, and it will also help to educate and inspire students.
In this video article, we document a protocol to assemble a CR2032 coin cell with a LiCoO2 working electrode, a Li counter electrode, and (the mostly commonly used) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. To ensure new learners to readily repeat the protocol, we keep the protocol as specific and explicit as we can. However, it is important to note that in specific research and development work, many parameters adopted here can be varied. First, one can make coin cells of different sizes and test the working electrode against a counter electrode other than Li. Second, the amounts of C black and binder added into the working electrodes are often varied to suit the particular purpose of research; for example, large amounts of C black or even inert powder were added to the working electrode to test the "intrinsic" performance of cathode materials14. Third, better binders (other than PVDF) have also developed and used18. Finally, other types of electrolytes (instead of LiPF6) can also be used; in fact, certain high-voltage electrode materials will require the uses of special electrolytes7.

A protocol to construct and test coin cells of lithium ion batteries is described. The specific procedures of making a working electrode, preparing a counter electrode, assembling a cell inside a glovebox and testing the cell are presented.

Rechargeable lithium ion batteries have wide applications in electronics, where customers always demand more capacity and longer lifetime.  Lithium ion ...

Solid-state Graft Copolymer Electrolytes for Lithium Battery Applications

Battery safety has been a very important research area over the past decade. Commercially available lithium ion batteries employ low flash point (&lt;80 &deg;C), flammable, and volatile organic electrolytes. These organic based electrolyte systems are viable at ambient temperatures, but require a cooling system to ensure that temperatures do not exceed 80 &deg;C. These cooling systems tend to increase battery costs and can malfunction which can lead to battery malfunction and explosions, thus endangering human life. Increases in petroleum prices lead to a huge demand for safe, electric hybrid vehicles that are more economically viable to operate as oil prices continue to rise. Existing organic based electrolytes used in lithium ion batteries are not applicable to high temperature automotive applications. A safer alternative to organic electrolytes is solid polymer electrolytes. This work will highlight the synthesis for a graft copolymer electrolyte (GCE) poly(oxyethylene) methacrylate (POEM) to a block with a lower glass transition temperature (Tg) poly(oxyethylene) acrylate (POEA). The conduction mechanism has been discussed and it has been demonstrated the relationship between polymer segmental motion and ionic conductivity indeed has a Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher (VTF) dependence. Batteries containing commercially available LP30 organic (LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate (EC):dimethyl carbonate (DMC) at a 1:1 ratio) and GCE were cycled at ambient temperature. It was found that at ambient temperature, the batteries containing GCE showed a greater overpotential when compared to LP30 electrolyte. However at temperatures greater than 60 &deg;C, the GCE cell exhibited much lower overpotential due to fast polymer electrolyte conductivity and nearly the full theoretical specific capacity of 170 mAh/g was accessed.

Lithium ion batteries employ flammable and volatile organic electrolytes that are suitable for ambient temperature applications. A safer alternative to organic electrolytes are solid polymer batteries. Solid polymer batteries operate safely at high temperatures (&gt;120 &deg;C), thus making them applicable to high temperature applications such as deep oil drilling and hybrid electric vehicles. This paper will discuss (a) the polymer synthesis, (b) the polymer conduction mechanism, and (c) provide temperature cycling for both solid polymer and organic electrolytes.

Battery safety has been a very important research area over the past decade. Commercially available lithium ion batteries employ low flash point (&lt;80 ...

Probing and Mapping Electrode Surfaces in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen 1-7. The performance of SOFCs and the rates of many chemical and energy transformation processes in energy storage and conversion devices in general are limited primarily by charge and mass transfer along electrode surfaces and across interfaces. Unfortunately, the mechanistic understanding of these processes is still lacking, due largely to the difficulty of characterizing these processes under in situ conditions. This knowledge gap is a chief obstacle to SOFC commercialization. The development of tools for probing and mapping surface chemistries relevant to electrode reactions is vital to unraveling the mechanisms of surface processes and to achieving rational design of new electrode materials for more efficient energy storage and conversion2. Among the relatively few in situ surface analysis methods, Raman spectroscopy can be performed even with high temperatures and harsh atmospheres, making it ideal for characterizing chemical processes relevant to SOFC anode performance and degradation8-12. It can also be used alongside electrochemical measurements, potentially allowing direct correlation of electrochemistry to surface chemistry in an operating cell. Proper in situ Raman mapping measurements would be useful for pin-pointing important anode reaction mechanisms because of its sensitivity to the relevant species, including anode performance degradation through carbon deposition8, 10, 13, 14 ("coking") and sulfur poisoning11, 15 and the manner in which surface modifications stave off this degradation16. The current work demonstrates significant progress towards this capability. In addition, the family of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques provides a special approach to interrogate the electrode surface with nanoscale resolution. Besides the surface topography that is routinely collected by AFM and STM, other properties such as local electronic states, ion diffusion coefficient and surface potential can also be investigated17-22. In this work, electrochemical measurements, Raman spectroscopy, and SPM were used in conjunction with a novel test electrode platform that consists of a Ni mesh electrode embedded in an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte. Cell performance testing and impedance spectroscopy under fuel containing H2S was characterized, and Raman mapping was used to further elucidate the nature of sulfur poisoning. In situ Raman monitoring was used to investigate coking behavior. Finally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) were used to further visualize carbon deposition on the nanoscale. From this research, we desire to produce a more complete picture of the SOFC anode.

We present a unique platform for characterizing electrode surfaces in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that allows simultaneous performance of multiple characterization techniques (e.g. in situ Raman spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy alongside electrochemical measurements). Complementary information from these analyses may help to advance toward a more profound understanding of electrode reaction and degradation mechanisms, providing insights into rational design of better materials for SOFCs.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen ...

Characterization of Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion and Sodium Ion Batteries Using Synchrotron Radiation Techniques

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. During insertion or removal of alkali metal ions, the redox states of transition metals in the compounds change and structural transformations such as phase transitions and/or lattice parameter increases or decreases occur. These behaviors in turn determine important characteristics of the batteries such as the potential profiles, rate capabilities, and cycle lives. The extremely bright and tunable x-rays produced by synchrotron radiation allow rapid acquisition of high-resolution data that provide information about these processes. Transformations in the bulk materials, such as phase transitions, can be directly observed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), while X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) gives information about the local electronic and geometric structures (e.g.&#160;changes in redox states and bond lengths). In situ experiments carried out on operating cells are particularly useful because they allow direct correlation between the electrochemical and structural properties of the materials. These experiments are time-consuming and can be challenging to design due to the reactivity and air-sensitivity of the alkali metal anodes used in the half-cell configurations, and/or the possibility of signal interference from other cell components and hardware. For these reasons, it is appropriate to carry out ex situ experiments (e.g.&#160;on electrodes harvested from partially charged or cycled cells) in some cases. Here, we present detailed protocols for the preparation of both ex situ and in situ samples for experiments involving synchrotron radiation and demonstrate how these experiments are done.

We describe the use of synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques to probe details of intercalation/deintercalation processes in electrode materials for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. Both in situ and ex situ experiments are used to understand structural behavior relevant to the operation of devices

Intercalation compounds such as transition metal oxides or phosphates are the most commonly used electrode materials in Li-ion and Na-ion batteries. ...

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric vehicles.1,2 However, many challenges, such as energy density and battery lifetimes, need to be overcome before this particular battery technology can be widely implemented in such applications.3 This research is challenging, and we outline a method to address these challenges using in situ NPD to probe the crystal structure of electrodes undergoing electrochemical cycling (charge/discharge) in a battery. NPD data help determine the underlying structural mechanism responsible for a range of electrode properties, and this information can direct the development of better electrodes and batteries.
We briefly review six types of battery designs custom-made for NPD experiments and detail the method to construct the &#8216;roll-over&#8217; cell that we have successfully used on the high-intensity NPD instrument, WOMBAT, at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO). The design considerations and materials used for cell construction are discussed in conjunction with aspects of the actual in situ NPD experiment and initial directions are presented on how to analyze such complex in situ data.

In Situ Neutron Powder Diffraction Using Custom-made Lithium-ion Batteries

We describe the design and construction of an electrochemical cell for the examination of electrode materials using in situ neutron powder diffraction (NPD). We briefly comment on alternate in situ NPD cell designs and discuss methods for the analysis of the corresponding in situ NPD data produced using this cell.

Li-ion batteries are widely used in portable electronic devices and are considered as promising candidates for higher-energy applications such as electric ...

Wicking Tests for Unidirectional Fabrics: Measurements of Capillary Parameters to Evaluate Capillary Pressure in Liquid Composite Molding Processes

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify their influence on void formation in composite parts. Wicking in a fibrous medium described by the Washburn equation was considered equivalent to a flow under the effect of capillary pressure according to the Darcy law. Experimental tests for the characterization of wicking were conducted with both carbon and flax fiber reinforcement. Quasi-unidirectional fabrics were then tested by means of a tensiometer to determine the morphological and wetting parameters along the fiber direction. The procedure was shown to be promising when the morphology of the fabric is unchanged during capillary wicking. In the case of carbon fabrics, the capillary pressure can be calculated. Flax fibers are sensitive to moisture sorption and swell in water. This phenomenon has to be taken into account to assess the wetting parameters. In order to make fibers less sensitive to water sorption, a thermal treatment was carried out on flax reinforcements. This treatment enhances fiber morphological stability and prevents swelling in water. It was shown that treated fabrics have a linear wicking trend similar to those found in carbon fabrics, allowing for the determination of capillary pressure.

An experimental method to measure geometrical parameters and the apparent advancing contact angles describing capillary wicking in unidirectional synthetic and natural fabrics is proposed. These parameters are mandatory for the determination of the capillary pressures that must be taken into account for liquid composite molding (LCM) applications.

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify ...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. However, a number of setbacks prevent their integration into commercial devices. The main limiting factor is due to nanoscale phenomena occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces, ultimately leading to degradation of battery operation. These key problems are highly challenging to observe and characterize as these batteries contain multiple buried interfaces. One approach for direct observation of interfacial phenomena in thin film batteries is through the fabrication of electrochemically active nanobatteries by a focused ion beam (FIB). As such, a reliable technique to fabricate nanobatteries was developed and demonstrated in recent work. Herein, a detailed protocol with a step-by-step process is presented to enable the reproduction of this nanobattery fabrication process. In particular, this technique was applied to a thin film battery consisting of LiCoO2/LiPON/a-Si, and has further been previously demonstrated by in situ cycling within a transmission electron microscope.

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

A protocol for the fabrication of electrochemically active LiPON-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries using a focused ion beam is presented.

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of ...

Three-electrode Coin Cell Preparation and Electrodeposition Analytics for Lithium-ion Batteries

As lithium-ion batteries find use in high energy and power applications, such as in electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, monitoring the degradation and subsequent safety issues becomes increasingly important. In a Li-ion cell setup, the voltage measurement across the positive and negative terminals inherently includes the effect of the cathode and anode which are coupled and sum to the total cell performance. Accordingly, the ability to monitor the degradation aspects associated with a specific electrode is extremely difficult because the electrodes are fundamentally coupled. A three-electrode setup can overcome this problem. By introducing a third (reference) electrode, the influence of each electrode can be decoupled, and the electrochemical properties can be measured independently. The reference electrode (RE) must have a stable potential that can then be calibrated against a known reference, for example, lithium metal. The three-electrode cell can be used to run electrochemical tests such as cycling, cyclic voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Three-electrode cell EIS measurements can elucidate the contribution of individual electrode impedance to the full cell. In addition, monitoring the anode potential allows the detection of electrodeposition due to lithium plating, which can cause safety concerns. This is especially important for the fast charging of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles. In order to monitor and characterize the safety and degradation aspects of an electrochemical cell, a three-electrode setup can prove invaluable. This paper aims to provide a guide to constructing a three-electrode coin cell setup using the 2032-coin cell architecture, which is easy to produce, reliable, and cost-effective.

Three-electrode cells are useful in studying the electrochemistry of lithium-ion batteries. Such an electrochemical setup allows the phenomena associated with the cathode and anode to be decoupled and examined independently. Here, we present a guide for construction and use of a three-electrode coin cell with emphasis on lithium plating analytics.

As lithium-ion batteries find use in high energy and power applications, such as in electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, monitoring the degradation and ...

Expression of Cementitious Pore Solution and the Analysis of Its Chemical Composition and Resistivity Using X-ray Fluorescence

The goal of this method is to determine the chemical composition and electrical resistivity of cementitious pore solution expressed from a fresh paste sample. The pore solution is expressed from a fresh paste sample using a pressurized nitrogen gas system. The pore solution is then immediately transferred to a syringe to minimize evaporation and carbonation. After that, assembled testing containers are used for the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurement. These containers consist of two concentric plastic cylinders and a polypropylene film which seals one of the two open sides. The pore solution is added into the container immediately prior to the XRF measurement. The XRF is calibrated to detect the main ionic species in the pore solution, in particular, sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), and sulfide (S2-), to calculate sulfate (SO42-) using stoichiometry. The hydroxides (OH-) can be calculated from a charge balance. To calculate the electrical resistivity of the solution, the concentrations of the main ionic species and a model by Snyder et al. are used. The electrical resistivity of the pore solution can be used, along with the electrical resistivity of concrete, to determine the formation factor of concrete. XRF is a potential alternative to current methods to determine the composition of pore solution, which can provide benefits in terms of reduction in time and costs.

This protocol describes the procedure to express fresh pore solution from cementitious systems and the measurement of its ionic composition using X-ray fluorescence. The ionic composition can be used to calculate pore solution electrical resistivity, which can be used, together with concrete electrical resistivity, to determine the formation factor.

The goal of this method is to determine the chemical composition and electrical resistivity of cementitious pore solution expressed from a fresh paste ...

Preparation of Graphene Liquid Cells for the Observation of Lithium-ion Battery Material

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between two graphene sheets, and the facile synthesis of one-dimensional nanostructures using electrospinning. The GLC enables in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the lithiation dynamics of electrode materials. The in situ GLC-TEM using an electron beam for both imaging and lithiation can utilize not only realistic battery electrolytes, but also the high-resolution imaging of various morphological, phase, and interfacial transitions.

Here, we present a protocol for the fabrication and preparation of a graphene liquid cell for in situ transmission electron microscopy observation, along with a synthesis of electrode materials and electrochemical battery cell tests.

In this work, we introduce the preparation of graphene liquid cells (GLCs), encapsulating both electrode materials and organic liquid electrolytes between ...