Name: defining substrate specificities for lipase and phospholipase candidates
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Dit werk werd ondersteund door subsidies van Consejo Nacional de Ciencias y Tecnología-México (CONACyT-Mexico) (82.614, 153.998, 253.549 en 178.359 in Investigación Científica Básica evenals 118 in Investigación en Fronteras de la Ciencia) en vanaf Dirección General de Asuntos de Personal Académico-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (DGAPA-UNAM; PAPIIT IN202616, IN203612).

1. Clone en overexpressie structureel gen voor Voorspelde lipase <ol><li> Middels polymerasekettingreactie (PCR) 14 en specifieke oligonucleotiden (Tabel 1) 15, vergroot het gen van belang (smc01003, smc00930 of smc00171), voorspelde te coderen voor een lipase of fosfolipase, uit het genomische DNA van het gastheerorganisme (dwz , S. meliloti). <ol><li> Voegen specifieke restrictieplaatsen (de ontworpen sequentie van de oligonucleotide...

<ol>
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Biotechnol. 13 (4), 390-397 (2002).</li><li>Dowhan, W., Bogdanov, M., Mileykovskaya, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+roles+of+lipids+in+membranes.">Functional roles of lipids in membranes.</a> Biochemistry of Lipids, Lipoproteins and Membranes. , 1-37 (2008).</li><li>Dowhan, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+basis+for+membrane+phospholipid+diversity:+why+are+there+so+many+lipids?.">Molecular basis for membrane phospholipid diversity: why are there so many lipids?.</a> Annu. Rev. Biochem. 66, 199-232 (1997).</li><li>De Rudder, K. E. E., Thomas-Oates, J. 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X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fatty+acid-releasing+activities+in+Sinorhizobium+meliloti+include+unusual+diacylglycerol+lipase.">Fatty acid-releasing activities in Sinorhizobium meliloti include unusual diacylglycerol lipase.</a> Environ. Microbiol. 17 (9), 3391-3406 (2015).</li><li>Fischer, M., Pleiss, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Lipase+Engineering+Database:+a+navigation+and+analysis+tool+for+protein+families.">The Lipase Engineering Database: a navigation and analysis tool for protein families.</a> Nucl. Acid. Res. 31 (1), 319-321 (2003).</li><li>Sigrist, C. J. 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In de afgelopen 20 jaar hebben genomen van vele organismen gesequenced en hoewel een schat aan genoomsequentie gegevens zijn gegenereerd, wordt de functionele interpretatie achterstand en belemmert daardoor ons begrip van de werking van het genoom. Genfuncties in het genoom worden vaak toegewezen op basis van similariteit met genen van bekende functie of voorkomen van geconserveerde motieven. De precieze functie van een bepaald gen vaak niet bekend. Vooral voorspelde structurele genen voor enzymen kunnen gemakkelijk met...

-Glycerol gebaseerde lipiden zoals triacylglycerolen en (glycero) fosfolipiden zijn belangrijke en waarschijnlijk de meest bekende lipide-klassen 1. Triacylglycerolen (TAGs) zijn vetten en oliën, die gewoonlijk fungeren als opslag lipiden en derhalve potentiële energie en koolstofbronnen. TAGs kan worden afgebroken door lipasen die vaak worden uitgescheiden door het producerende organisme externe TAGs verteren en beschikbaar als koolstofbronnen. Ook lipasen zijn uitgebreid bestudeerd in de jaren vanwege hun belangrijke biotechnologische toepassingen 2. Door hun amfifiele aard en hun bijna-cilindrische vorm, (glycero) fosfolipiden vertonen membraanvormende eigenschappen en meestal vormen de belangrijkste lipide componenten van een dubbellaag membraan 3. In eenvoudige organismen zoals de bacterie Escherichia coli, slechts drie grote kopgroep varianten, fosfatidylglycerol (PG), cardiolipine (CL) en phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) worden aangetroffen, hoewel men dient te beseffen dat elk daarvan kan worden gesubstitueerd met een groot aantal verschillende vetacylketens op de sn-1 of sn-2 positie waardoor een groot aantal verschillende moleculaire species 4 . Andere bacteriën kunnen andere fosfolipiden, naast of in plaats daarvan. Bijvoorbeeld, Sinorhizobium meliloti, een bodem bacterie, die in staat is een stikstoffixerende wortel knobbel symbiose met de peulvruchten alfalfa (Medicago sativa) vormen, bevat naast een tweede zwitterionisch fosfolipide, fosfatidylcholine (PC) PE 5. Ook lipiden zonder fosfor of glycerol kunnen amfifiele en deel uitmaken van de cellulaire membraan. Bijvoorbeeld upon fosfor beperkende groeiomstandigheden, S. meliloti, (glycero) fosfolipiden grotendeels vervangen door membraanlipiden die geen fosfor bevatten, dat wil zeggen, sulfolipiden, ornithine lipiden en diacylglyceryl trimethylhomoserine (DGTS) 6. In bacteriën wordt DGTS gevormd van diacylglycerol (DAG) in een tweestaps route 7 maar de bron voor DAG generatie was niet duidelijk. Pulse-chase experimenten gesuggereerd dat PC een voorloper voor DGTS 8 zou kunnen zijn en het gebruik van de in dit manuscript konden we een fosfolipase C (PLCP, SMc00171) identificeren beschreven methodologie die in het kader van fosfor randvoorwaarden wordt gevormd en welke pc kan omzetten in DAG en fosfocholine 8. In een afzonderlijke studie, ontdekten we dat een acyl-CoA synthetase (FADD) deficiënte mutant van S. meliloti of Escherichia coli geaccumuleerde vrije vetzuren bij het invoeren van stationaire fase van 9 groei. Hoewel deze vetzuren leek te worden afgeleid van membraanlipiden, werden de precieze bron van de vrije vetzuren of de enzym (en) men ze niet bekend. Nogmaals, in dienst van de strategie die in dit manuscript, twee patatine-achtige 10 (fosfo) lipasen (SMc00930 en SMc01003) die hebben bijgedragen aan de vorming van vrije vetzuren in S. meliloti 11 voorspeld. Verrassenderwijs SMc01003 DAG gebruikt als substraat converteren naar monoacylglycerol en tenslotte glycerol en vrije vetzuren 11. Daarom SMc01003 een DAG lipase (DGLA). Hoewel een aantal algoritmes aanwezig voor het voorspellen van mogelijke (fosfo) lipasen 12,13, de exacte functie en fysiologische rol meestal niet bekend. Hier schetsen we een protocol, te klonen en overexpressie voorspelde of potentiële (fosfo) lipasen. Dit manuscript uitgelegd hoe enzymbepalingen kunnen worden ontwikkeld en geoptimaliseerd voor de overexpressie (fosfo) lipase met kunstmatige chromogene substraten. We geven voorbeelden hoe met een geoptimaliseerde enzym assay de echte (fosfo) lipase substraat kan worden opgetreden en hoe deze bevindingen ons begrip van microbiële fysiologie zou kunnen verrijken.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9180-03</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9070-03</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9507-05</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hexanes</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9309-02</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethylether</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>32203</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bidistilled water</td>
			<td>&#160;ANY</td>
			<td>&#160;NA</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris Base</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T-1503</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>9535-02</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>3624-01</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>X-100</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth</td>
			<td>ANY</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth, 10g tryptone + 5g yeast extract + 10g NaCl per liter of bidistilled water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tryptone</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>211705</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>yeast extract</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>212750</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TY broth</td>
			<td>ANY</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth, 8g tryptone + 3g yeast extract + 66mg CaCl2 2 H20 per liter of bidistilled water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2 2 H2O</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>1332-01</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>isopropyl-&#946;-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15529-019</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethanolamine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D-8885</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MnCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221279</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phospholipase A2 snake venom</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P0790</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phospholipase C Clostridium perfingrens</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7633</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bis-p-nitrophenyl phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>07422AH</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl stearate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N3627</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl dodecanoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>61716</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl decanoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N0252</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl palmitate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N2752</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl butyrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N9876</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl octanoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>21742</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic Acid, sodium salt [1-14C]</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NEC084</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9224-01</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminium HPTLC silica gel 60 plates. Silica gel HPTLC plates size 20 x 20 cm, 25 sheets.</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>105547</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrometer UV/VIS Lambda 35</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Storm 820 Phosphorimager</td>
			<td>Molecular Dynamics</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Photostimulable Luminescence scanner&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multipurpose Scintillation Counter</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Radioactivity Quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>French Pressure Cell</td>
			<td>ThermoSpectronic</td>
			<td>NA&#160;</td>
			<td>Breakage of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>chromatography paper 3MM Chr</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>3030917</td>
			<td>TLC analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sinorhizobium meliloti 1021our</td>
			<td>reference 34</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>studied strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS Competent cells</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69451</td>
			<td>protein expression strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pET9a vector</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69431</td>
			<td>protein expression vector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pET17b vector</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69663</td>
			<td>protein expression vector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sterile polystyrene round-bottom tube (14 ml) Falcon</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>352057</td>
			<td>radiolabeling of bacterial cultures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>polypropylene microcentrifuge tubes (1.5 ml)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>30125.15</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D9135</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-&#945;-phosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoyl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P6267</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DL-&#945;-monopalmitin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M1640</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>palmitic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P0500</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

defining substrate specificities for lipase and phospholipase candidates

Micro-organismen produceren een breed scala aan (fosfo) lipasen die worden afgescheiden teneinde externe beschikbare substraten voor het organisme maken. Ook kunnen andere (fosfo) lipasen fysiek gekoppeld aan het producerende organisme veroorzaakt een omzet van intrinsieke lipiden en vaak aanleiding geeft tot een hermodellering van de celmembranen. Hoewel potentiaal (fosfo) lipase kan worden voorspeld met een aantal algoritmen wanneer het gen / eiwitsequentie beschikbaar, experimenteel bewijs van de enzymactiviteiten, substraatspecificiteiten en mogelijke fysiologische functies is vaak niet verkregen. Dit manuscript beschrijft de optimalisatie van testcondities voor potentiële (fosfo) lipasen met onbekende substraatspecificiteiten en hoe deze geoptimaliseerde omstandigheden te gebruiken in de zoektocht naar het natuurlijke substraat van een respectievelijke (fosfo) lipase. Met behulp van kunstmatige chromogene substraten, zoals p-nitrofenyl derivaten kunnen helpen in geringe sporenenzymatische activiteit een voorspeld (fosfo) lipase onder standaardomstandigheden. Hebben ondervonden dergelijke kleine enzymatische activiteit kunnen de verschillende parameters van een enzym assay worden gevarieerd teneinde een efficiëntere hydrolyse van het kunstmatige substraat te verkrijgen. Na de voorwaarden waaronder een enzym werkt goed hebben vastgesteld, moet een groot aantal potentiële natuurlijke substraten worden getest op hun degradatie, een proces dat gevolgd kan worden in dienst verschillende chromatografische methoden. De definitie van substraatspecificiteiten voor nieuwe enzymen, vormt vaak hypothesen voor een mogelijke fysiologische rol van deze enzymen, die vervolgens experimenteel getest worden. Door deze richtlijnen, konden we een fosfolipase C (SMc00171) die fosfatidylcholine aan fosfocholine en diacylglycerol, een cruciale stap voor de verbouwing van membranen in de bacterie Sinorhizobium meliloti upon fosfor randvoorwaarden groei degradeert identificeren. Voor twee voorspelde patatin-zoals fosfolipasen (SMc00930 en SMc01003) van hetzelfde organisme, konden we hun substraat specificiteiten opnieuw te definiëren en te verduidelijken dat SMc01003 is een diacylglycerol lipase.

Activiteit van PC-specifieke fosfolipase C SMc00171 met Bis- p nitrofenylfosfaat Celvrije extracten verkregen van E. coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS x, die moest smc00171 expressie werden onderzocht op hun vermogen om bis-p-nitrofenylfosfaat esters hydrolyseren, onder toepassing van een spectrofotometrische enzymatische test, meten blz -NP ge...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Defining Substrate Specificities for Lipase and Phospholipase Candidates at JoVE.com

Defining Substrate Specificities for Lipase and Phospholipase Candidates

Many predicted (phospho)lipases are poorly characterized with regard to their substrate specificities and physiological functions. Here we provide a protocol to optimize enzyme activities, search for natural substrates, and propose physiological functions for these enzymes.

Het definiëren van de ondergrond hebben voor lipase en fosfolipase Kandidaten

Microorganisms produce a wide spectrum of (phospho)lipases that are secreted in order to make external substrates available for the organism. ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to accelerate the detection of physiological substrates for potential lipases and phosopholipases. This method can help answer key questions in the Entomology field, such as how phospholipases contribute to lipid remodeling in biological membranes. The main advantage of this technique is that the optimization of enzymatic activity and the search for the natural substrate for the enzyme can be performed independently.Though this method can provide insight into substrate specificity of bacterial lipases and phospholipases, it can also be modified to study hydrolases of any other model organisms. We first had the idea for this method when we searched for an enzyme activity that could degrade the intrinsic membrane lipid phosphatidylcholine inorhizobium meliloti. To prepare cell-free protein extracts, defrost bacterial cell suspensions and store them on ice.Then, pass the cell suspensions three times through a cold pressure cell at 20, 000 pounds per square inch. Remove the in-tact cells and cell debris by centrifugation at 5, 000 times g for 30 minutes, at four degrees Celsius. After centrifugation, prepare aliquots of 100 and 500 microliters from the supernatant for subsequent analysis.Set up the previously-optimized enzyme assay using the pipetting schemes tabulated in the text protocol. For an initial coverage of distinct enzyme activities, use artificial substrates that yield a colored product upon hydrolysis, such as para-nitrophenol or PNP derivatives. Follow the time course for an increase of absorbance at 405 nanometers, due to the formation of PNP in a spectrophotometer at 30 degrees Celsius over a five-minute period.Finally, perform calculations as described in the text protocol. For radio labeling of lipids, prepare an overnight pre-culture of an organism of interest in five milliliters of the desired culture medium and grow at 30 degrees Celsius. From the pre-culture, inoculate into 20 millimeters of fresh medium in a 100-millimeter culture flask, to obtain an initial optical density at 620 nanometers of 0.3 for the culture.Next, transfer a one-milliliter aliquot of the culture to a 14-milliliter sterile polystyrene round bottom tube under sterile conditions. Add one microcurie of 114 c acetate to the one-milliliter culture. Then, incubate the liquid culture under agitation at 30 degrees Celsius for a period of 24 hours.At the end of the incubation period, transfer the culture to a 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tube and centrifuge at 12, 000 times g at room temperature for five minutes. Resuspend the pellet in 100 microliters of water. At this point, store the cell suspension at minus 20 degrees Celsius or immediately continue with the extraction of polar lipids.To perform the extraction of polar lipids, add 375 microliters of a two to one methanol to chloroform solution to the 100 microliters of aqueous cell suspension. Vortex the sample for 30 seconds before incubating for five minutes at room temperature. Following incubation, centrifuge for five minutes at 12, 000 times g at room temperature.Then, transfer the supernatant to a new 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tube. Next, add 125 microliters of chloroform and 125 microliters of water to the supernatant. After vortexing for 30 seconds, centrifuge the sample for one minute at 12, 000 times g at room temperature.Transfer the lower chloroform phase to a fresh tube. Then, dry the solution with a stream of nitrogen gas. Dissolve the dried lipids in 100 microliters of chloroform to methanol solution.For separation of neutral polar lipids by thin layer chromatography, apply three microliter aliquots of the lipid samples, on a high performance thin-layer chromatography silica gel aluminum sheet, starting two centimeters from the edges of the plate. If multiple samples are analyzed in one-dimensional chromatography, keep a distance of at least 1.5 centimeters between the different sample application spots. Transfer the mobile phase to a TLC developing chamber, internally coated with chromatography paper.Cover with a glass plate to let the chamber saturate for 30 minutes. Transfer the HPTLC Silica Gel aluminum sheet with the dried lipid samples to the chamber. Allow the plate to develop for 30 minutes in a closed chamber before removing the plate.Then, let the solvents dry off in a flow hood for two hours. Once the developed TLC sheet is dry, incubate it with a photostimulable luminescence screen in a closed cassette for three days. Then, expose the incubated screen to a PSL scanner and acquire a virtual image of the separated radio-labeled lipids.To determine diacylglycerol, or DAG, lipase activity, first add 5, 000 CPM of 14 C-labeled DAG to a 1.5 milliliter microcentrifuge tube. Also, add a solution of Triton X-100 to the tube and mix by vortex. Dry the solution under a stream of nitrogen.For a final 100 microliter assay, add Tris-HCl buffer, a sodium chloride solution, and bi-distilled water. Vortex for five seconds. Initiate the reaction by adding five microliters of enzyme to the solution.Incubate the solution at 30 degrees Celsius for four hours. Stop the reaction by the addition of 250 microliters of methanol and 125 microliters of chloroform, before extracting lipids as described earlier in this video. Proceed to analyze neutral polar lipids by 1DTLC and subsequent PSL imaging as before.Although the predicted phosopholipase SMc01003 shows activity with artificial para-nitrophenol acyl esters, the activity is only double or triple of the background activity present in cell-free extracts of Escherichia coli, in which no foreign gene had been expressed. This indicates that para-nitrophenyl acyl esters don't seem to be good substrates for SMc01003. Whereas cell-free extracts of E.Coli cannot degrade diacylglycerol, extracts of strains in which the predicted phospholipase, SMc01003, had been expressed, caused a degradation of diacylglycerol.Though SMc01003 was predicted to be a phospholipase, it is actually a diacylglycerol lipase that degrades diacylglycerol to monoacylglycerol and one fatty acid. It then degrades monoacylglycerol further to glycerol and another fatty acid. Once mastered, this technique can be done in a few weeks if it's performed properly.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to optimize enzyme activities of lipases and phospholipases, and how to continue with the search for their physiological substrates. A crucial advantage of this procedure is that the optimization of the enzyme activity can be separated from the search for the natural enzyme substrate. Don't forget that working with organic solvents or radioactive substances can be extremely hazardous and the required precautions should always be taken while performing this procedure.

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