Name: biophysical characterization of flagellar motor functions
Uploaded: 2017-01-18T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Biophysical Characterization of Flagellar Motor Functions at JoVE.com

The authors acknowledge Howard Berg for the gift of the bead-tracking microscope/photomultipliers and the Texas A&amp;M Engineering Experiment Station for funds.

1. Zellpräparation <ol><li> Wachsen über Nacht Kulturen der gewünschten Stamm der klebrigen fliC Allel 15,22 in Trypton - Bouillon tragen (TB, 1% Pepton, 0,5% NaCl) , gefolgt von der Inokulation bei 1: 100 Verdünnung in 10 ml frischem TB. Die Kultur bei 33 ° C in einem Schüttelinkubator bis OD 600 = 0,5. </li><li> Pelletieren Sie die Zellen bei 1.500 xg für 5 bis 7 min und re-dispergieren das Pellet kräftig in 10 ml filtersterilisiert Motilität Puffer (MB; 10 mM Phosphatpuffer: ...

<ol>
	<li>Emody, L., Kerenyi, M., Nagy, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virulence+factors+of+uropathogenic+Echerichia+coli.">Virulence factors of uropathogenic Echerichia coli.</a> Int J Antimicrob. Ag. 22, 29-33 (2003).</li><li>Lane, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+motility+in+the+colonization+of+uropathogenic+Escherichia+coli+in+the+urinary+tract.">Role of motility in the colonization of uropathogenic Escherichia coli in the urinary tract.</a> Infect Immun. 73 (11), 7644-7656 (2005).</li><li>Kao, C. 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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+field+guide+to+bacterial+swarming+motility.">A field guide to bacterial swarming motility.</a> Nat Rev Microbiol. 8 (9), 634-644 (2010).</li><li>Belas, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biofilms,+flagella,+and+mechanosensing+of+surfaces+by+bacteria.">Biofilms, flagella, and mechanosensing of surfaces by bacteria.</a> Trends Microbiol. 22 (9), 517-527 (2014).</li><li>Silverman, M., Simon, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flagellar+rotation+and+the+mechanism+of+bacterial+motility.">Flagellar rotation and the mechanism of bacterial motility.</a> Nature. 249, 73-74 (1974).</li><li>Block, S. M., Segall, J. E., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptation+Kinetics+in+Bacterial+Chemotaxis.">Adaptation Kinetics in Bacterial Chemotaxis.</a> J Bacteriol. 154 (1), 312-323 (1983).</li><li>Segall, J. E., Block, S. M., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+comparisons+in+bacterial+chemotaxis.">Temporal comparisons in bacterial chemotaxis.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 83, 8987-8991 (1986).</li><li>Blair, D. F., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Restoration+of+torque+in+defective+flagellar+motors.">Restoration of torque in defective flagellar motors.</a> Science. 242 (4886), 1678-1681 (1988).</li><li>Ryu, W. S., Berry, R. M., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torque-generating+units+of+the+flagellar+motor+of+Escherchia+coli+have+a+high+duty+ratio.">Torque-generating units of the flagellar motor of Escherchia coli have a high duty ratio.</a> Nature. 403, 444-447 (2000).</li><li>Yuan, J., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resurrection+of+the+flagellar+rotary+motor+near+zero+load.">Resurrection of the flagellar rotary motor near zero load.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 105 (4), 1182-1185 (2008).</li><li>Yuan, J., Fahrner, K. A., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Switching+of+the+bacterial+flagellar+motor+near+zero+load.">Switching of the bacterial flagellar motor near zero load.</a> J Mol Biol. 390 (3), 394-400 (2009).</li><li>Sowa, Y., Hotta, H., Homma, M., Ishijima, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torque-speed+Relationship+of+the+Na+-driven+Flagellar+Motor+of+Vibrio+alginolyticus.">Torque-speed Relationship of the Na+-driven Flagellar Motor of Vibrio alginolyticus.</a> J Mol Biol. 327 (5), 1043-1051 (2003).</li><li>Xing, J., Bai, F., Berry, R., Oster, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torque-speed+relationship+of+the+bacterial+flagellar+motor.">Torque-speed relationship of the bacterial flagellar motor.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103 (5), 1260-1265 (2006).</li><li>Meacci, G., Tu, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+the+bacterial+flagellar+motor+with+multiple+stators.">Dynamics of the bacterial flagellar motor with multiple stators.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 106 (10), 3746-3751 (2009).</li><li>Lele, P. P., Roland, T., Shrivastava, A., Chen, Y. H., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+flagellar+motor+of+Caulobacter+crescentus+generates+more+torque+when+a+cell+swims+backwards.">The flagellar motor of Caulobacter crescentus generates more torque when a cell swims backwards.</a> Nat Phys. 12 (2), 175-178 (2016).</li><li>Lele, P. P., Shrivastava, A., Roland, T., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+thresholds+in+bacterial+chemotaxis.">Response thresholds in bacterial chemotaxis.</a> Sci Adv. 1 (9), e1500299 (2015).</li><li>Berg, H. C., Turner, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torque+Generated+by+the+Flagellar+Motor+of+Escherichia+coli.">Torque Generated by the Flagellar Motor of Escherichia coli.</a> Biophys J. 65, 2201-2216 (1993).</li><li>Bai, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conformational+Spread+as+a+Mechanism+for+Cooperativity+in+the+Bacterial+Flagellar+Switch.">Conformational Spread as a Mechanism for Cooperativity in the Bacterial Flagellar Switch.</a> Science. 327, 685-689 (2010).</li><li>Reid, S. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+maximum+number+of+torque-generating+units+in+the+flagellar+motor+of+Escherichia+coli+is+at+least+11.">The maximum number of torque-generating units in the flagellar motor of Escherichia coli is at least 11.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103, 8066-8071 (2006).</li><li>Chen, X., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torque-Speed+Relationship+of+the+Flagellar+Rotary+Motor+of+Escherichia+coli.">Torque-Speed Relationship of the Flagellar Rotary Motor of Escherichia coli.</a> Biophys J. 78, 1036-1041 (2000).</li><li>Turner, L., Caplan, S. R., Berg, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temperature-induced+switching+of+the+bacterial+flagellar+motor.">Temperature-induced switching of the bacterial flagellar motor.</a> Biophys J. 71, 2227-2233 (1996).</li></ol>

Um tethered Wulst-Tracking und korrekte Schätzung der Motor-Drehmomente zu erleichtern, sollten die folgenden Informationen überprüft werden. Wenn diese Messungen mit flagellated Zellen durchgeführt wird, Scherung ist ein kritischer Schritt. Shearing reduziert die Flagellenfilamenten auf eine bloße stub, wodurch sichergestellt wird, dass die viskose Last auf dem Motor zu dem Wulst überwiegend aus und kann innerhalb von 10% Fehler 16 geschätzt werden. Shearing verbessert auch die Chancen mit dicht verte...

Flagellenmotoren ermöglichen Zellen durch Drehen Schraubenextrazellulären Filamente zu schwimmen. Der Betrag des Drehmoments des Motors für eine gegebene Länge des Flagellums erzeugen kann (dh die viskose Last) bestimmt die Schwimmgeschwindigkeit. Auf der anderen Seite, seine Fähigkeit, die Drehrichtung steuert, die Zellmigration in Reaktion auf Chemikalien, ein Verfahren bekannt, wie Chemotaxis zu wechseln. Chemotaxis und Beweglichkeit sind Virulenzfaktoren 1-3, Flagellenmotoren wurden 4 über die Jahre gut charakterisierte. Montage Hinweise darauf , nun , dass der Motor als Mechanosensor wirkt - es erkennt , mechanisch das Vorhandensein von festen Substraten 5,6. Diese Fähigkeit hilft wahrscheinlich bei der Auslösung von Oberflächenbesiedlung und Infektionen 5,7. Als Ergebnis, wobei die Mechanismen die Motoroberflächen und initiiert Signalisierungs Sinne sind von Bedeutung 8,9. Der Flagellenmotors kann leicht durch Anbinden der flagell untersucht werdenum auf ein Substrat und das Beobachten Zellrotation. Solche Anbinden wurde zuerst von Silverman und Simon erreicht, der mit einer polyhook Mutante in E. coli und erfolgreich befestigt Haken auf Glassubstrate mit anti-hook Antikörper 10 gearbeitet. Die tethered-Zell-Assay Forschern ermöglicht, die Antworten des Motorschalter in einer Vielzahl von chemischen Stimuli zu studieren. Zum Beispiel Segall et al chemisch gebundenen Zellen mit Hilfe von iontophoretischen Pipetten stimuliert. Die entsprechenden Änderungen in CW bias (der Bruchteil der Zeit Motoren drehen im Uhrzeigersinn CW) ermöglichte es ihnen 11,12 die Kinetik der Anpassung in der Chemotaxis - Netzwerk zu messen. Während die tethered - Zell - Assay in Studium Schalter Reaktionen wirksam war, war es nur in der Lage Einblicke in Motormechanik 13 über einen begrenzten Bereich von viskosen Belastungen zu bieten. Um dieses Problem zu überwinden, Ryu et al gebunden sphärisch, Latexperlen stubs auf Zellen an Oberflächen geklebt Filaments. Die Perlen wurdendann zurückverfolgt Brenn Interferometrie mit schwachen optischen Fallen 14 verwendet wird . Durch die Arbeit mit Perlen unterschiedlicher Größe, könnten Forscher untersuchen den Motor über eine viel breitere Palette von Lasten. Dieser Assay wurde später verbessert durch Yuan und Berg, der einen Photovervielfacher-basierte bead-Verfolgungstechnik mit Laser-Dunkelfeldbeleuchtung in Kombination entwickelt. Ihre Methode ermöglicht Verfolgung von tethered Gold Nanobeads , die so klein waren (~ 60 nm) , dass die externen viskoser Widerstände waren niedriger im Vergleich zu den inneren viskosen Widerstände gegen Rotation 15,16. Dies führte zu den Messungen der maximal erreichbaren Geschwindigkeiten in E. coli (~ 300 Hz). In V. alginolyticus, ähnlich Perle Assays Messungen der Spinngeschwindigkeiten bei Zwischen viskos Lasten (~ 700 Hz) 17 aktiviert. Durch die Aktivierung Messungen der motorischen Reaktionen über den gesamten möglichen Bereich von viskosen Lasten (von Null-Last bis nahen Stall), vorausgesetzt, die Wulst-Assays ein wichtiges Werkzeug, um die biophysikalischen t zu verstehen,orque-Erzeugungsprozess 18,19. Vor kurzem geändert wir den Yuan-Berg - Test optische Pinzette aufzunehmen , die uns präzise mechanische Reize auf einzelne Motoren 6 anwenden aktiviert. Unter Verwendung dieser Technik haben wir gezeigt, daß die Kraftgeneratoren, die den Motor dynamisch sind Mechanosensoren drehen - sie remodellieren in Reaktion auf Änderungen in viskoser Lasten. Es ist möglich, dass solche Load-Sensing-Zelldifferenzierung in Schwärmen Bakterien ausgelöst wird, obwohl die Mechanismen unklar bleiben. Sie ist auch wahrscheinlich , dass die Flagellenmotoren in anderen Spezies sind auch mechanosensitive 20, direkte Beweise fehlen. Hier diskutieren wir die Photomultiplier-basierte (PMT) Ansatz zur Verfolgung der Rotation von Latex - Kügelchen gebunden an Flagellen Fäden 15. Im Vergleich mit ultraschnellen Kameras Verfolgung der Photomultiplier-Aufbau ist vorteilhaft, da es relativ einfach ist, einzelne Perlen in Echtzeit und über lange dura zu verfolgengen. Es ist besonders nützlich , wenn 21 Umbau in Flagellenmotors Komplexe durch Umweltreize seit langer Zeit zu studieren. Obwohl wir Detail Protokolle speziell für E. coli, können sie leicht für das Studium Flagellenmotoren in anderen Arten angepasst werden.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-L-lysine Solution (0.1%)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8920</td>
			<td>http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/p8920?lang=en&#38;region=US</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybead Microspheres</td>
			<td>Polysciences, Inc.</td>
			<td>7307</td>
			<td>http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/p8920?lang=en&#38;region=US</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 ml Luer Slip Tip Syringe</td>
			<td>Exel Int.</td>
			<td>26048</td>
			<td>http://www.exelint.com/tuberculin_syringes.php</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clay Adams Intramedic Luer-Stub Adapter 23-gauge</td>
			<td>Becton, Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>427565</td>
			<td>http://www.bd.com/ds/productCenter/ES-LuerStubAdaptors.asp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene tubing</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>59-8325</td>
			<td>http://www.harvardapparatus.com/laboratory-polye-polyethylene-non-sterile-tubing.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photomultiplier Tubes</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>R7400U-20</td>
			<td>Spectral response range of 300 to 920 nm, Peak wavelength 630 nm,&#160; 0.78 ns response time&#160; 
			http://pdf1.alldatasheet.com/datasheet-pdf/view/212308/HAMAMATSU/R7400U-20.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3x1 mm precision slits</td>
			<td>Edmund Optics</td>
			<td>NT39-908</td>
			<td>2 slits mounted at right angles to one another on photomultiplier tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oscilloscope</td>
			<td>Tektronix</td>
			<td>TBS 1032B</td>
			<td>Alternative brands are acceptable. Digital Oscilloscope, TBS 1000B Series, 2 Analogue, 30 MHz, 500 MSPS, 2.5 kpts&#160; 
			http://www.tek.com/oscilloscope/tbs1000b-digital-storage-oscilloscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8 Pole LP/HP Filter</td>
			<td>Krohn-Hite</td>
			<td>3384</td>
			<td>Alternative brands are acceptable. A frequency range from 0.1 Hz to 200 kHz is recommended.&#160;&#160;&#160; 
			http://www.krohn-hite.com/htm/filters/PDF/3384Data.pdf</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optiphot microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Any upright or inverted phase microscope can be used. 
			https://www.thorlabs.com/newgrouppage9.cfm?objectgroup_id=754</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50:50 (R:T) Cube Beamsplitter</td>
			<td>ThorLabs</td>
			<td>BS013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

biophysical characterization of flagellar motor functions

The role of flagellar motors in bacterial motility and chemotaxis is well-understood. Recent discoveries suggest that flagellar motors are able to remodel in response to a variety of environmental stimuli and are among the triggers for surface colonization and infections. The precise mechanisms by which motors remodel and promote cellular adaptation likely depend on key motor attributes. The photomultiplier-based bead-tracking technique presented here enables accurate biophysical characterization of motor functions, including adaptations in motor speeds and switch-dynamics. This approach offers the advantage of real-time tracking and the ability to probe motor behavior over extended durations. The protocols discussed can be readily extended to study flagellar motors in a variety of bacterial species.

Der Photomultiplier Aufbau ist in 1A gezeigt. Es ist wichtig, dass die PMT von den Kügelchen von Interesse verstreut hohe Empfindlichkeiten über den Bereich von Wellenlängen aufweisen. Die PMT hier beschäftigt arbeiten im sichtbaren und im nahen Infrarot-Bereich, und waren in der Lage Licht von Perlen mit einem Halogenlichtquelle beleuchtet verstreut zu erkennen. Die optimale Lichtverhältnisse und Versorgungsspannungen werden von einer Einrichtung zur anderen variie...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Biophysical Characterization of Flagellar Motor Functions at JoVE.com

Biophysical Characterization of Flagellar Motor Functions

Recent findings suggest that bacterial flagellar motors sense a variety of environmental signals and remodel in response. The bead-assays discussed here are expected to help explain the role of remodeling in cellular adaptation to environmental stressors.

Biophysikalische Charakterisierung von Flagellenmotors Funktionen

The role of flagellar motors in bacterial motility and chemotaxis is well-understood. Recent discoveries suggest that flagellar motors are able to remodel ...

The overall of goal of this experimental procedure is to measure the rotation of probe beads attached to individual flagellar motors in live bacterial cells. The technique that we'll describe offers the advantage of real-time tracking of motor responses and the ability to discriminate between admissible and inadmissible data in real time. The approach is helping us answer key questions in the field of mechanobiology and uncover the physics underlying molecular motor behavior.Although we predominantly employ these techniques to study flagellar motors in E.coli, these protocols can be readily adapted to study motors in other species of flagellated bacteria. Grow overnight cultures of the desired strain carrying the sticky fliC allele in TB.The next day, inoculate 10 milliliters of fresh TB at a 1:100 dilution. Grow the culture at 33 degrees Celsius in a shaker incubator until the optical density at 600 nanometers equals 0.5.Pellet the cells at 1500 times G for five to seven minutes. Then, redisperse the pellet vigorously in 10 milliliters of filter-sterilized motility buffer. Repeat the centrifugation and resuspension two more times.Redisperse the final pellet in one milliliter of MB.Shear the suspension by passing it back and forth approximately 75 times between two syringes with 21 to 23 gauge adapters connected by polyethylene tubing. Limit the total time for shearing to 30 to 45 seconds. After centrifuging the sheared cells, redisperse the pellet in 100 to 500 microliters of MB.Prepare an imaging chamber by sandwiching two double-sided adhesive tapes between a cover slip and a microscope slide.Add 0.01%poly-L-lysine solution in the chamber and after five minutes, gently rinse the surfaces with MB.Add 40 microliters of the cell suspension into the chamber and allow sufficient time for attachment to the glass surface. Flow out unstuck cells by adding 100 microliters of MB on one side of the chamber, while wicking the solution with filter paper from the other side. Next, add 10 to 15 microliters of latex beads into the chamber.Use a range of bead sizes for the experiments that result in a good contrast. Allow the beads adequate time to settle and attach to the cells. Gently rinse the beads with 100 microliters of MB to remove unstuck beads.Place the sample on a microscope stage and scan the surface for beads attached to motors. Employ bright-field imaging with a 60X objective as long as sufficient contrast is maintained to clearly distinguish a bright bead on a dark background. Once a bead has been selected, move the stage laterally to position the bead in a pre-determined corner.Position beads at the same corner to ensure that the direction of rotation of the bead is correctly known. Maintain the sampling frequency higher than twice the rotational frequency of the motor to avoid errors associated with aliasing. In this work, sampling frequencies that were 10 times higher were used to observe a motor rotating at 50 hertz.If, after tethering, the beads appear to wobble with an eccentricity greater than one to two times that of the bead radius, then it's recommended to shear the cells a greater number of times. Shown here is a visual comparison between an appropriately-tethered bead and a bead that is not tethered. The outputs from the two photomultipliers, sampled at 500 hertz, are represented over a small duration of the measurement.The filtered outputs from the PMTs, after centering and scaling, were used to reconstruct the circular trajectories of the rotating bead, as shown here. The ideal bead trajectory is approximately circular but elliptical trajectories are admissible. The angular speeds calculated from the bead trajectories for a single motor are represented over a three-second window.The repeated transitions of the motor between the counterclockwise and clockwise directions of rotation are indicated by switches between positive and negative values. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to track beads tethered to single flagellar motors with high accuracy, using the photomultiplier-based techniques presented here. The bacterial flagellar motor presents a unique set of challenges because it is capable of rotating at speeds of several hundred hertz.High accuracy tracking of probe beads tethered to molecular motors facilitated the characterization of several types of motors, including kinesins, myosins and F1-ATPase. The extension of the bead tethering technique to flagellar motors enabled researchers to study motor mechanics with an unprecedented accuracy. Visual demonstration of this method will help researchers wishing to utilize this technique to overcome challenges such as locating beads appropriately tethered to individual motors.It is expected that the methods demonstrated here will enable the development of novel insights into the adaptability of these nanomachines in a variety of bacterial species.

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Selective Capture of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine from Genomic DNA

Selektive Aufnahme von 5-Hydroxymethylcytosin aus genomischer DNA

5-methylcytosine (5-mC) constitutes ~2-8% of the total cytosines in human genomic DNA and impacts a broad range of biological functions, including gene ...

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC)

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC

Einzel-Molekül-Imaging der Genregulation<em&gt; In vivo</em&gt; Verwenden cotranslationalen Aktivierung durch Spaltung (CoTrAC)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells ...

Super-resolution Imaging of the Bacterial Division Machinery

Super-Resolution Imaging der Bakterien Abteilung Machinery

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated  assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central  to this process is the formation of ...

Introduction to Solid Supported Membrane Based Electrophysiology

Einführung in die Festkörperphysik Unterstützte Membrane Basierend Elektrophysiologie

The electrophysiological method we present is based on a solid supported membrane (SSM) composed of an octadecanethiol layer chemisorbed on a gold coated ...

Efficient Production and Purification of Recombinant Murine Kindlin-3 from Insect Cells for Biophysical Studies

Effizienten Herstellung und Reinigung von rekombinantem murinem Kindlin-3 von Insektenzellen für biophysikalische Studien

Kindlins are essential coactivators, with talin, of the cell surface receptors&#160;integrins and also participate in integrin outside-in signalling, and ...

Measurement of Metabolic Rate in Drosophila using Respirometry

Measurement of Metabolic Rate in Drosophila using Respirometry

Messung der Stoffwechselrate in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Mit Respirationstest

Metabolic disorders are a frequent problem affecting human health. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate metabolism is a crucial ...

Silencing of BRCA2 to Identify Novel BRCA2-regulated Biological Functions in Cultured Human Cells

Silencing of BRCA2 to Identify Novel BRCA2-regulated Biological Functions in Cultured Human Cells

Silencing<em&gt; BRCA2</em&gt; Zum Novel BRCA2-regulierten Biologische Funktionen in kultivierten menschlichen Zellen zu identifizieren

Silencing of the tumor suppressor protein BRCA2 and its detection by conventional biochemical analyses represent a great technical challenge owing to the ...