Name: a novel method to model chronic traumatic encephalopathy in drosophila
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Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila at JoVE.com

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1. Montaje del Dispositivo de Huelga ( Figura 1 ) <ol><li> Retire el émbolo de una jeringa de tuberculina de 1 ml. Corte el barril en la marca de 1 mL. </li><li> Retire una barrera de aerosol (3 mm de altura x 4 mm de diámetro) de una punta de pipeta de 200 μL y úsela como un impactador. Coloque el impactador dentro del cilindro de la jeringa. Golpee suavemente el cañón para mover el impactador al extremo de la punta, con el lado plano que cubre la abertura de la boquilla. </li><li>...

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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+traumatic+encephalopathy:+where+are+we+and+where+are+we+going?.">Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: where are we and where are we going?.</a> Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 13 (12), 407 (2013).</li><li>McKee, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+spectrum+of+disease+in+chronic+traumatic+encephalopathy.">The spectrum of disease in chronic traumatic encephalopathy.</a> Brain. 136 (Pt 1), 43-64 (2013).</li><li>Petraglia, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+spectrum+of+neurobehavioral+sequelae+after+repetitive+mild+traumatic+brain+injury:+a+novel+mouse+model+of+chronic+traumatic+encephalopathy.">The spectrum of neurobehavioral sequelae after repetitive mild traumatic brain injury: a novel mouse model of chronic traumatic encephalopathy.</a> J Neurotrauma. 31 (13), 1211-1224 (2014).</li><li>Hirth, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drosophila+melanogaster+in+the+study+of+human+neurodegeneration.">Drosophila melanogaster in the study of human neurodegeneration.</a> CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 9 (4), 504-523 (2010).</li><li>Littleton, J. T., Ganetzky, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ion+channels+and+synaptic+organization:+analysis+of+the+Drosophila+genome.">Ion channels and synaptic organization: analysis of the Drosophila genome.</a> Neuron. 26 (1), 35-43 (2000).</li><li>Appel, L. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+Stubble-stubbloid+gene+encodes+an+apparent+transmembrane+serine+protease+required+for+epithelial+morphogenesis.">The Drosophila Stubble-stubbloid gene encodes an apparent transmembrane serine protease required for epithelial morphogenesis.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 90 (11), 4937-4941 (1993).</li><li>Piyankarage, S. C., Featherstone, D. E., Shippy, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoliter+hemolymph+sampling+and+analysis+of+individual+adult+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Nanoliter hemolymph sampling and analysis of individual adult Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Anal Chem. 84 (10), 4460-4466 (2012).</li><li>Katzenberger, R. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Drosophila+model+of+closed+head+traumatic+brain+injury.">A Drosophila model of closed head traumatic brain injury.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 110 (44), E4152-E4159 (2013).</li><li>Barekat, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+Drosophila+as+an+integrated+model+to+study+mild+repetitive+traumatic+brain+injury.">Using Drosophila as an integrated model to study mild repetitive traumatic brain injury.</a> Sci Rep. 6, 25252 (2016).</li><li>Katzenberger, R. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Method+to+Inflict+Closed+Head+Traumatic+Brain+Injury+in+Drosophila.">A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila.</a> J Vis Exp. (e52905), (2015).</li><li>Branson, K., Robie, A. A., Bender, J., Perona, P., Dickinson, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+ethomics+in+large+groups+of+Drosophila.">High-throughput ethomics in large groups of Drosophila.</a> Nat Methods. 6 (6), 451-457 (2009).</li><li>Straw, A. D., Dickinson, M. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Motmot,+an+open-source+toolkit+for+realtime+video+acquisition+and+analysis.">Motmot, an open-source toolkit for realtime video acquisition and analysis.</a> Source Code Biol Med. 4 (5), 1-10 (2009).</li><li>Talavage, T. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functionally-detected+cognitive+impairment+in+high+school+football+players+without+clinically-diagnosed+concussion.">Functionally-detected cognitive impairment in high school football players without clinically-diagnosed concussion.</a> J Neurotrauma. 31 (4), 327-338 (2014).</li><li>Theadom, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frequency+and+impact+of+recurrent+traumatic+brain+injury+in+a+population-based+sample.">Frequency and impact of recurrent traumatic brain injury in a population-based sample.</a> J Neurotrauma. 32 (10), 674-681 (2015).</li><li>Drobysheva, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+optimized+method+for+histological+detection+of+dopaminergic+neurons+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">An optimized method for histological detection of dopaminergic neurons in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> J Histochem Cytochem. 56 (12), 1049-1063 (2008).</li></ol>

Los modelos animales que modelan fielmente las características del CTE, incluidas las alteraciones neurofisiológicas, los signos neuropatológicos y los déficits neuroconductuales, son esenciales para descubrir los mecanismos de la enfermedad y para desarrollar objetivos diagnósticos y terapéuticos. Es comprensible que ningún modelo animal de una enfermedad humana sea perfecto para imitar todos los puntos finales clínicamente relevantes. Sin embargo, creemos que un modelo de CTE robusto debe satisfacer los siguie...

La encefalopatía traumática crónica (CTE) ha sido reconocida recientemente como un trastorno neurodegenerativo distinto, separado de otras tauopatías como la enfermedad de Alzheimer 1 . A diferencia de la enfermedad de Alzheimer y otras tauopatías comunes-cuyos factores de riesgo más importantes son la edad avanzada y una historia familiar de demencia, CTE, como se indica por su nombre, implica una estrecha asociación con una historia de trauma cerebral, Como boxeadores y futbolistas, así como en veteranos militares 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . Se cree que es iniciado por repetidos golpes concussive y subconcussive a la cabeza. Los pacientes pueden presentar síntomas y signos tales como déficits cognitivos, cambios de humor y comportamiento, y disfunción del movimiento, que se superponen significativamente con la enfermedad de Alzheimer, frontotemporalDemencia, demencia de cuerpos de Lewy y enfermedad de Parkinson 6 . En cambio, los exámenes post-mortem del tejido cerebral revelan un patrón distinto de acumulación de tau hiperfosforilada que rodea pequeños vasos sanguíneos en las profundidades de los surcos corticales, característica patognomónica que no se observa en otras condiciones degenerativas 7 . Sin embargo, hasta ahora, se sabe muy poco acerca de la patogénesis que conduce a la manifestación de la enfermedad. Esto se debe en gran parte a la falta de un modelo animal fiel - sólo recientemente se han generado modelos de roedores 5 , 8 . Estos organismos modelo tienen las desventajas de la atención costo-intensiva y una vida relativamente larga, que no son bien-adaptados para los estudios de la enfermedad neurodegenerative. En comparación con los homólogos de mamíferos, los animales invertebrados como Drosophila son una excelente alternativa, con su mantenimiento rentable,Extensas herramientas para diseccionar determinantes genéticos y una vida relativamente corta 9 . Sorprendentemente, la mosca y el cerebro humano comparten las vías moleculares y celulares evolutivamente conservadas, así como las similitudes anatómicas 10 , 11 , 12 . Dos ingeniosos modelos de Drosophila para estudiar la lesión cerebral traumática han sido reportados previamente 13 , 14 . El primer dispositivo &quot;High Impact Trauma&quot; (HIT) diseñado por Katzenberger y sus colegas contenía moscas de movimiento libre en un vial de plástico que estaba atado al extremo libre de un resorte metálico 13 , 15 . Cuando el vial de plástico se inclinó verticalmente y se soltó, golpeó una almohadilla de poliuretano e impartió un traumatismo a las moscas cuando rebotaron en la pared del vial y se recuperaron. En contraste, Barekat y sus colegas diseñaron un método de entrega diferenteLa plataforma de homogeneización Omni Bead Ruptor-24 14 . Las moscas fueron incapacitadas con CO 2 y colocadas en un tubo de tornillo de 2 mL que se aseguró al homogeneizador y se sometió a condiciones de agitación preprogramadas. Un beneficio de usar el sistema homogeneizador de tejidos es que el experimentador podría modular la intensidad de la lesión, la duración de la lesión y el número de episodios de lesiones. Sin embargo, ambos regímenes sufren el mismo inconveniente: las lesiones primarias en la cabeza se infligen aleatoriamente en términos de localización y fuerza del impacto. Además, ambos métodos dieron como resultado una mortalidad considerable, causada por daños colaterales inevitables a otras partes del cuerpo y órganos internos. Aquí, describimos un nuevo método para inducir mTBI en las moscas de la fruta. Nuestro aparato consiste en un impactador balístico propulsado por gas. En comparación con los modelos 14 , 15 de Drosophila existentes, nuestro método tiene la ventaja, Dirigido solamente al cabezal de mosca libre, permitiendo así el control preciso de varios factores, tales como la severidad del impacto, el intervalo de tiempo entre impactos y el número total de impactos sostenidos.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="692">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Aerosol Barrier</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">USA Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1120-8810</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">Used as an impactor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">200 ul Pipette Tip</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">USA Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1111-0706</td>
			<td>Used as a fly head holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">1000 ul Pipette Tip</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">USA Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1122-1830</td>
			<td>Used as a connector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">1 ml Tuberculin Syringe</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">309625</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">60 mm Petri Dishes</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875713A</td>
			<td>Used as a tracking arenas</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Flow Regulator</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">59-122WC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Standard Clamp Holder/stand</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">EISCO Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CH0688</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Fine Brush</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">59-204</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Flypad</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">59-114</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Sylgard Silicone Elastomer</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Dow Corning</td>
			<td>4019862</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">CCD Camera</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Microsoft&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">HD-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ctrax Walking Fly Tracker</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Caltech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Ctrax 0.2.11</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">MATLAB Image Processing Toolbox</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">MATLAB</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R2015b</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a novel method to model chronic traumatic encephalopathy in drosophila

La encefalopatía traumática crónica (CTE) es una enfermedad neurodegenerativa establecida que está estrechamente asociada con la exposición a lesiones traumáticas cerebrales leves y repetitivas (mTBI). Los mecanismos responsables de sus complejos cambios patológicos siguen siendo en gran medida evasivos, a pesar de un reciente consenso para definir los criterios neuropatológicos. En este trabajo se describe un método novedoso para desarrollar un modelo de CTE en Drosophila melanogaster ( Drosophila ) en un intento de identificar los genes clave y las vías que conducen a la acumulación de tau hiperfosforilada característica y la muerte neuronal en el cerebro. Los impactos de fuerza ajustable para infligir heridas cerradas leves se entregan directamente a la cabeza de mosca, sometiendo la cabeza a aceleración y deceleración rápidas. Nuestro método elimina los problemas potenciales inherentes con otros modelos de mTBI de Drosophila ( por ejemplo, la muerte animal podría ser inducida por daño aOtras partes del cuerpo oa los órganos internos). Cuanto menor sea el trabajo y el costo de cuidados intensivos de los animales, la vida corta y herramientas genéticas extensas hacen la mosca de la fruta ideal para estudiar la patogénesis CTE y que sea posible realizar a gran escala, genoma amplia genética y pantallas farmacológicas. Anticipamos que la caracterización en curso del modelo generará ideas mecanicistas importantes sobre la prevención de enfermedades y enfoques terapéuticos.

Para establecer un modelo de CTE utilizando Drosophila para adultos, determinamos la eficacia de nuestro dispositivo al infligir una sola lesión de cabeza cerrada. Para eliminar las variaciones relacionadas con el genotipo, el sexo o la edad, se utilizaron 2 días de edad Canton-S WT moscas hembra en el experimento. Podríamos controlar fácilmente la resistencia del impactador regulando el caudal de CO 2 a una presión de gas constante de 100 kPa. Las moscas expuest...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila at JoVE.com

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Aquí, describimos un nuevo enfoque para infligir la lesión cerebral traumática de cabeza cerrada en Drosophila melanogaster . Nuestro método tiene la ventaja de entregar directamente impactos repetitivos con fuerza ajustable a la cabeza sola. Una mayor exploración del sistema de invertebrados ayudará a iluminar la patogénesis de la encefalopatía traumática crónica.

Un nuevo método para modelar la encefalopatía traumática crónica<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic ...

The overall goal of this novel procedure is to inflict closed traumatic brain injuries in the fruit fly, Drosophila, to establish a new chronic traumatic encephalopathy model. This method can help answer key questions in the chronic traumatic encephalopathy field, such as how the repetitive trauma induces neuron degeneration. The main advantage of this technique is that it delivers the repetitive impacts of adjustable strengths to the fly head directly without causing damage to other parts of the animal body.Real world demonstration of this method is critical as assembly of the device and fly loading steps are difficult to learn, because the Drosophila head is so small and it is important to apply the impact only to the head. To make the apparatus used to concuss or strike the fruit flies, first, make the impactor portion of the apparatus. Remove the plunger from a one milliliter polycarbonate tuberculin syringe and then cut the barrel at the one milliliter mark.For an impactor, use the aerosol barrier found on a 200 microliter pipette tip. This impactor should be three millimeters long and four millimeters in diameter. Then, pack the impactor into the syringe barrel with the flat side towards the nozzle.To provide force, attach the syringe barrel to a carbon dioxide flow regulator. The regulator must have an On Off toggle switch and good control of the gas flow rate. Then, clamp the barrel vertically to an iron stand, such that the impactor will fall to the bottom of the barrel.Next, make the fly holder. Start with a 200 microliter pipette tip. Cut the pipette's tip five millimeters from the small end to make a 8 millimeter diameter opening.A fly head will fit through this hole, but the thorax will not. Lastly, make a for the fly holder and impactor device. First, cut a one milliliter pipette tip 44 millimeters from the small opening.Second, cut a six millimeter length from the needle cover for a one milliliter syringe. Then, push the two together. Anesthetize a single, two-day old adult female fly using carbon dioxide.From the carbon dioxide pad, use a fine brush to gently transfer the fly into the holder. Then, gently tap the holder until the head protrudes from the tip. Of the proboscis is exposed, use a blunted, one milliliter syringe needle to gently tuck it back inside the tip.It is critical to keep the fly body, especially the mouth part, inside the holder. Otherwise, the fly may die from damage to the internal organs or from not being able to ingest food. Next, set the gas pressure to 100 kilopascals and adjust the flow as needed.Once the fly is loaded, tighten the holder to the syringe barrel using the connector, such that the fly head faces downward. Then, using the toggle switch, send a burst of gas that moves the impactor to strike the fly once and only once. Now, detach the fly holder and dump the fly back onto the carbon dioxide pad.Brush the fly into an empty vial until it recovers. Keep one fly per vial. The recovery takes only a few minutes.Repeat the process to test four flies per experimental group. Processing two groups, a test and a sham, should only take 20 to 30 minutes. Treat shams just like test animals, except do not include an aerosol barrier in the impactor tube.To track fly movements in a Petri dish, first, fill a six centimeter dish with transparent silicon elastomer to make the tracking arena. Leave a three millimeter gap between the silicon and the lid so that flies can walk freely in the gap, but not take flight. Beneath the tracking arena, have a white background.Next, anesthetize four flies from the same treatment group and place them in the arena. Let the flies acclimate for an hour to the arena, which should be fully lit and at about 22 degrees Celsius. Not hotter than room temperature.After an hour, use a charge-coupled device camera positioned above the arena to record the fly's activity for five minutes. After the five minute recording, anesthetize the flies in the arena and return them to a new home vial. Then, dispose of the arena.Later, analyze the recordings using the freely available Ctrax software. This software generates tracking data, which can be exported in a programmable language compatible format, such as the MATLAB format. From the data, calculate the distance traveled per frame, the mean walking distance for each fly, and the average distance traveled per fly.For statistical significance, expect to test about 100 flies per treatment group. To establish a chronic traumatic encephalopathy model, the effectiveness of a single, closed-head injury made by the impacting apparatus at different speeds was analyzed using two-day old Canton-S females. The gas pressure was held at 100 kilopascals.Flies exposed to a single strike at the highest tested flow rate, exhibited minimal external defects. Despite no clear evidence for external damage, injuries at a flow rate of 15 liters per minute were acutely lethal, resulting in less than a 10%survival within 24 hours. Survival increased with lower flow rates.One hundred percent survival was achieved at five liter per minute or less, so five liters per minute was selected as the standard for the model. Just after being struck, flies gradually recovered their mobility within four minutes. Recovery for the shams was about a minute quicker.Post-impact, video-assisted movement tracking was used to measure locomotive function. During the two days after the impact, locomotion slowly returned to normal. This evidence for gradual recovery is in line with CTE recovery in humans.To evaluate long term effects, a repetitive traumatic brain injury protocol of five strikes over five days was applied. Twenty days post-treatment, the locomotion of surviving members in each group was compared and the treated group clearly walked less. The lifespan of the treated group was also substantially reduced, with a median at 26 days compared to 37 days for controls.After its development, this technique paves the way for researchers in the field of mild repetitive traumatic brain injury to explore pathogenic mechanisms in the classic animal model Drosophila melanogaster. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember to shield the proboscis, thorax and abdomen from direct impact by the aerosol barrier.

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Novel Apparatus and Method for Drug Reinforcement

Novela Aparato y método para el fortalecimiento de Drogas

Animal models of reinforcement have proven to be useful for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms underlying drug addiction.  Operant drug ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Lateral Fluid Percussion: Model of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Percusión fluido lateral: Modelo de Lesión Cerebral Traumática en ratones

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has attained renewed momentum due to the increasing awareness of head injuries, which result in morbidity and ...

A Low-cost Method for Analyzing Seizure-like Activity and Movement in Drosophila

A Low-cost Method for Analyzing Seizure-like Activity and Movement in Drosophila

Un método de bajo costo para el Análisis convulsiva actividad y movimiento en<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Video tracking systems have been used widely to analyze Drosophila melanogaster movement and detect various abnormalities in locomotive behavior. While ...

A Novel Method of Drug Administration to Multiple Zebrafish (Danio rerio) and the Quantification of Withdrawal

A Novel Method of Drug Administration to Multiple Zebrafish Danio rerio and the Quantification of Withdrawal

Un nuevo método de la Administración de Drogas a múltiple pez cebra (<em&gt; Danio rerio</em&gt;) Y la cuantificación de Retiro

Anxiety testing in zebrafish is often studied in combination with the application of pharmacological substances. In these studies, fish are routinely ...

Quantitative Analysis of Climbing Defects in a Drosophila Model of Neurodegenerative Disorders

Análisis cuantitativo de los Defectos de escalada en un modelo de Drosophila de enfermedades neurodegenerativas

Locomotive defects resulting from neurodegenerative disorders can be a late onset symptom of disease, following years of subclinical degeneration, and ...

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

Un método para infligir Cerrado Jefe lesión cerebral traumática en<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people each year, causing impairment of physical, cognitive, and behavioral functions and death. Studies ...

Recording EEG in Freely Moving Neonatal Rats Using a Novel Method

Grabación de EEG en Ratas Neonatales que se mueven libremente usando un método nuevo

EEG is a useful method to detect electrical activity in the brain. Moreover, it is a widely used diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, such ...

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Ensayo novedoso para la nocicepción en frío<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Las larvas

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory ...

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

Un modelo de novela In Vitro de lesión cerebral traumática por explosión

Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of death and disability in military and civilian populations. Blast traumatic brain injury results from the ...