Name: a protein microarray assay for serological determination of antigen-specific antibody responses following clostridium difficile infection
Uploaded: 2018-06-15T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Protein Microarray Assay for Serological Determination of Antigen-specific Antibody Responses Following Clostridium difficile Infection at JoVE.com

Denne forskning blev støttet af en Hermes Fellowship Ola Negm og Tanya Monaghan og gennem særskilte midler fra Nottingham fordøjelsessystemet sygdomme centrum og NIHR Nottingham fordøjelsessystemet sygdomme biomedicinsk forskning centrum.

1. udarbejde en Microarray plade
<ol><li>Fortynd C. difficile antigener med en udskrivning buffer [PBS-Tween-trehalose (50 mM)] i den optimale koncentration, (som var foruddefinerede før du kører de patient sera): toksin en (200 µg/mL) og toksin B (100 µg/mL), pCDTb (200 µg/mL), og renset indfødte hele SLPs stammer fra ribotypes 001, 002 og 027 (200 µg/mL). Bemærk: Toksin B blev indhentet fra et toksin B-udtrykker stamme CCUG 20309 (90 µg/mL).<ol>
<li>Fortynd de positive kontroller, lysates af ...

<ol>
	<li>Negm, O. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Profiling+humoral+immune+responses+to+Clostridium+difficile.-specific+antigens+by+protein+microarray+analysis.">Profiling humoral immune responses to Clostridium difficile.-specific antigens by protein microarray analysis.</a> Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 22 (9), 1033-1039 (2015).</li><li>Monaghan, T. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+prevalence+of+subclass-specific+binding+and+neutralizing+antibodies+against+Clostridium+difficile.+toxins+in+adult+cystic+fibrosis+sera:+possible+mode+of+immunoprotection+against+symptomatic+C.+difficile+infection.">High prevalence of subclass-specific binding and neutralizing antibodies against Clostridium difficile. toxins in adult cystic fibrosis sera: possible mode of immunoprotection against symptomatic C. difficile infection.</a> Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology. 10, 169-175 (2017).</li><li>Negm, O. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protective+antibodies+against+Clostridium+difficile.+are+present+in+intravenous+immunoglobulin+and+are+retained+in+humans+following+its+administration.">Protective antibodies against Clostridium difficile. are present in intravenous immunoglobulin and are retained in humans following its administration.</a> Clinical &amp; Experimental Immunology. 188 (3), 437-443 (2017).</li><li>Monaghan, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=OC-058+A+protein+microarray+assay+for+predicting+severe+outcomes+in+Clostridium+difficile+infection.">OC-058 A protein microarray assay for predicting severe outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection.</a> Gut. 66, 31 (2017).</li><li>Bacon, A. 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I denne protokol, har vi vist, at microarray er en velegnet platform til at definere humorale immunrespons til C. difficile protein antigener i patient sera (tallene 3 og 6) og kommercielle præparater af IVIg (figur 5). Vi har også bevist at microarray teknik udfører godt i forhold til konventionelle ELISA (figur 2) og viser fremragende reproducerbarhed, med intra og Inter-Diesel assay variabilitet falder inden for a...

Denne protokol beskriver udvikling og validering af en roman og tilpassede protein microarray analyse til påvisning og semi-kvantificering af bakteriel stamme og isotypespecifikke antistof svar til C. difficile antigener. Vi kunne bruge vores C. difficile-specifikke microarray analyse som en lovende nye værktøj til den kompositoriske bioanalyse af specifikt antistof indhold i patientens sera1,2, præparater af IVIg3, og identifikation af antistof særtræk, der korrelerer med dårlige resultater i CDI4. Vi demonstrere, hvordan biobanked serumprøver og kommercielle præparater af IVIg kan analyseres på microarray dias, så høj kvalitet reproducerbare profilering af C. difficile patogen-specifikke antistof svar i denne analyse.
Mange raske børn og voksne har påviselige serum IgG og IgA antistoffer til C. difficile toksiner A og B5,6. Disse menes at opstå efter forbigående eksponering under vorden og efter udsættelse for C. difficile i voksenalderen. Derfor polyklonale IVIg har været brugt off-label til behandling af tilbagevendende og fulminant CDI7,8,9. Men dens endelige rolle og virkningsmekanisme er fortsat uklart. Flere undersøgelser har vist, at den LUN immun svar til C. difficile toksiner spiller en rolle i sygdom præsentation og resultatet. Specifikt, viser asymptomatiske patienter en øget serum anti-toksin A IgG koncentration sammenlignet med patienter, der udvikler symptomatisk sygdommen10. En påviselig tilknytning er blevet rapporteret til median anti-toksin A IgG titers og 30-dages all-dødelighed11. Flere rapporter har også afsløret en forening med en beskyttelse mod gentagelse og antistof svar til toksin A, B og flere ikke-toksin antigener (Cwp66, Cwp84, FliC, FliD og overflade lag proteiner (SLPs))12,13 , 14 , 15. disse observationer har ansporet udvikling af den første passiv immunterapi narkotika målretning C. difficile toksin B (bezlotuxumab), som er for nylig blevet godkendt af US Food and Drug Administration og det Europæiske Lægemiddelagentur Agentur for forebyggelse af tilbagevendende CDI16. Vaccinationsstrategier ved hjælp af inaktiverede toksiner eller rekombinant toksin fragmenter er også i øjeblikket under udvikling17,18,19. Disse nye terapeutiske tilgange vil utvivlsomt fremme kravet om evaluering LUN immun svar til flere antigener i store stikprøvestørrelser.
I dag, er der en bemærkelsesværdig mangel på kommercielt tilgængelige høj overførselshastighed assays i stand til samtidigt vurdere bakteriel stamme og isotypespecifikke antistof svar til C. difficile antigener. Der er et udækket behov for at udvikle sådanne assays for at lette fremtidig forskning og kliniske applikationer. Protein microarrays er en metode til at immobilisere stort antal individuelt renset proteiner som et rumligt organiseret vifte af steder på en mikroskopisk slide-baserede overflade ved hjælp af en robot system, som kan være enten en kontakt20 eller en ikke-kontakt udskrivning værktøj21. Steder kan repræsentere komplekse blandinger som cellelysater, antistoffer, væv homogeniseret, endogene eller rekombinante proteiner eller peptider, kropsvæsker eller narkotika22,23.
Protein microarray teknologi tilbyder forskellige fordele i forhold til standard in-house ELISA teknikker, som traditionelt er blevet brugt til at vurdere anti -C. difficile antistof reaktioner. Disse omfatter en øget kapacitet til at afsløre et udvalg af multi-isotypespecifikke antistoffer mod en mere omfattende panel af protein mål, reduceret volumen krav for antigener, prøver og reagenser, og en forbedret evne til at indarbejde en større antallet af tekniske replikater, foruden flere interne kvalitetskontrol (QC) foranstaltninger1. Microarrays er derfor mere følsomme, nøjagtige og reproducerbare og har et større dynamikområde. Disse faktorer gør microarrays en billigere og potentielt gunstige alternativ til ringprøver for storstilet påvisning af kendte proteiner. Imidlertid ulemper af microarray teknologi skyldes hovedsageligt store up-front udgifter i forbindelse med oprettelse af et panel af højtrenset antigener og oprette den teknologiske platform.
Protein microarrays har været flittigt brugt i de seneste to årtier som et diagnostisk og grundlæggende forskningsværktøj i kliniske applikationer. Specifikke anvendelser omfatter protein udtryk profilering, undersøgelse af enzym-substrat relationer, biomarkør screening, analyse af host-mikrobe interaktioner, og profilering antistof specificitet23,24, 25,26,27,28. Mange nye patogen protein/antigen microarrays er fastlagt, herunder malaria (Plasmodium)29, HIV-130, influenza31, alvorlig akut luftvejssyndrom (SARS)32, viral hæmoragisk feber33 , herpesvirus34, og tuberkulose35.
Denne protokol vedrører oprettelsen af en let drift C. difficile reaktive antigen microarray analyse, som muliggør præcis, præcis og specifik kvantificering af multi-isotypen og stamme-specifikke antistof svar til C. difficile antigener i sera og polyklonale IVIg. Heri, medtager vi repræsentative resultater vedrørende en acceptabel microarray analyse ydeevne i forhold til ELISA assay præcision og reproducerbarhed profiler. Denne analyse kunne udvikles yderligere for at profilere andre kliniske prøver og sætter en ny standard for forskning i den molekylære grundlag af CDI.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:399px;">BioRobotics MicroGrid II arrayer</td>
			<td style="width:296px;">Digilab, Malborough, MA, USA</td>
			<td style="width:296px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:836px;">Contact arrayer used to automated spotting of the antigens onto the slides.</td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Scanner InnoScan 710.</td>
			<td>Innopsys</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>A fluorescent microarray slide scanner with a red (Cy5) laser to read the reaction.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MAPIX software version 7.2.0</td>
			<td>Innopsys</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Measure signal intensities of the spots.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Silicon contact pin</td>
			<td>Parallel Synthesis Technologies</td>
			<td>SMT-P75</td>
			<td>Print the samples onto the slides.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thermo Scientific Nalgene Desiccator</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>41102426</td>
			<td>To store the new and printed slides.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">384-well plate</td>
			<td>Genetix</td>
			<td>X7022UN</td>
			<td>To prepare the antigens.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Plate cover</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>CLS6570-100EA</td>
			<td>To reduce evaporation of the samples.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Aminosilane slides</td>
			<td>Schott,&#160; Germany</td>
			<td>1064875</td>
			<td>The slide of choice for printing the antigens.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Slide holders</td>
			<td>GraceBio Labs, USA</td>
			<td>204862</td>
			<td>Divide the slides into identical 16 subarrays. These holders are re-usable, removable, leak-proof wells .&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Candida albicans lysate</td>
			<td>NIBSC</td>
			<td>PR-BA117-S</td>
			<td>Positive control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tetanus Toxoid&#160;</td>
			<td>Athens Research and Technology</td>
			<td>04/150</td>
			<td>Positive control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin G (IgG), Normal Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090707</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin G IgG, Human Plasma.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1), Normal Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090707-1</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin G1 IgG1, Human Plasma.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin G2 (IgG2), Normal Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090707-2</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin G2 IgG2, Human Plasma.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin G3 (IgG3), Normal Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090707-3</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin G3 IgG3, Human Plasma.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin G4 (IgG4), Normal Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090707-4</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin G4 IgG4, Human Plasma.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin A (IgA), Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090701</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin A (IgA), Human Plasma.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1), Human Myeloma Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090701-1M</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1), Human Plasma.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin A2 (IgA2), Human Myeloma Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090701-2M</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin A2 (IgA2), Human Plasma.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunoglobulin M (IgM), Human Plasma</td>
			<td>&#160;Athens research and&#160; technology&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>16-16-090713</td>
			<td>Purified Native Human Immunoglobulin M (IgM), Human Plasma.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Biotinylated Goat Anti-Human IgG Antibody, gamma chain specific</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>BA-3080</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG (&#947;-chain specific)-biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgG1 Hinge-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9052-08&#160;</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG1 biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG1 but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgG2 Fc-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9060-08&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG2 -biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG 2but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgG3 Hinge-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9210-08&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG3-biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG3 but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgG4 pFc&#39;-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9190-08&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG-biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti-Human IgA, alpha chain specific, made in goat - Biotinylated</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>BA-3030</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG -biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgA1-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9130-08</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG -biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgA2-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9140-08&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG -biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse Anti-Human IgM-BIOT</td>
			<td>Southern Biotec</td>
			<td>9020-08&#160;</td>
			<td>Goat anti- human IgG-biotin antibody reacts specifically with human IgG but not with other immunoglobulins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">0.2 mm syringe filter</td>
			<td>Thermo scientific</td>
			<td>723-2520</td>
			<td>Filter the 5% BSA.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich, UK</td>
			<td>A7284</td>
			<td>Use 5% BSA for blocking the slides.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Antibody diluent</td>
			<td>Dako, UK</td>
			<td>S3022</td>
			<td>To dilute the serum and the secondary antibody.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Streptavidin Cy5</td>
			<td>eBioscience</td>
			<td>SA1011</td>
			<td>Detection of the immune reaction.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Purified whole C. difficile toxins A and B (toxinotype 0, strain VPI 10463, ribotype 087)</td>
			<td>Toxins Group, Public Health England</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Purified whole C. difficile toxin B (CCUG 20309 toxin B only expressing strain)</td>
			<td>Toxins Group, Public Health England</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Precursor form of B fragment of binary toxin, pCDTb</td>
			<td>University of Bath&#160;</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Produced in E. Coli from wholly synthetic recombinant gene construct. Amino acid sequence based on published sequence from 027 ribotype (http:www.uniprot.org/uniprot/A8DS70)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Purified native whole ribotype-specific (001, 002, 027) surface layer proteins</td>
			<td>Dublin City University&#160;</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vigam (IVIg preparation 1)</td>
			<td>Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Privigen (IVIg preparation 2)</td>
			<td>Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Intratect (IVIg preparation 3)</td>
			<td>Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a protein microarray assay for serological determination of antigen-specific antibody responses following clostridium difficile infection

Vi giver en detaljeret oversigt over en roman høj overførselshastighed protein microarray analyse til bestemmelse af anti -Clostridium difficile antistof niveauer i menneskers sera og separat præparater af polyklonale intravenøs immunglobulin (IVIg). Protokollen beskriver de metodiske trin involveret i prøveforberedelse, udskrivning af arrays, analyseprocedure og dataanalyse. Derudover kunne denne protokol udvikles yderligere for at integrere forskellige kliniske prøver herunder plasma og celle kultur analysere. Vi viser, hvordan protein microarray kan bruges til at afgøre en kombination af isotype (IgG, IgA, IgM), underklasse (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1, IgA2), og stamme-specifikke antistoffer mod meget renset hele C. difficile toksiner A og B (toxinotype 0, stamme VPI 10463, ribotype 087), toksin B fra en C. difficile toksin B kun udtrykke stamme (CCUG 20309), en forløber form af et B fragment af binære toksin, pCDTb, ribotype-specifikke hele overflade lag proteiner (SLPs, 001, 002, 027), og kontrollere proteiner (stivkrampe toxoid og Candida albicans). Under eksperimentet, microarrays er aftestede med sera fra personer med C. difficile infektion (CDI), personer med cystisk fibrose (CF) uden diarré, raske kontrolpersoner (HC), og fra enkeltpersoner pre og post-IVIg behandling for den behandling af CDI, kombineret immundefekt sygdom og kronisk inflammatorisk demyeliniserende polyradiculopathy. Vi møder betydelige forskelle i toksin neutralisering efficacies og multi-isotypen specifikt antistof niveauer mellem patientgrupper, kommercielle præparater af IVIg, og sera før og følgende IVIg administration. Også, der er en markant sammenhæng mellem microarray og enzym-forbundet immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antitoksin IgG niveauer i serumprøver. Disse resultater tyder på, at microarray kunne blive et lovende redskab for profilering antistof svar til C.difficile antigener på vaccineret eller inficerede mennesker. Med yderligere finjustering af antigen paneler og en reduktion af produktionsomkostningerne forventer vi, at microarray teknologi kan hjælpe med at optimere og vælge de mest klinisk nyttige immunoterapi til C. difficile infektion på en patient-specifikke måde.

Figur 1 illustrerer et rutediagram, der beskriver de vigtigste trin i den beskrevne protokol. Figur 2 viser Spearman korrelation tests viser betydelig aftale mellem microarray og ELISA for IgG og IgA anti-toksin A og B niveauer i patient testsera. Figur 3 viser differential IgG og IgA antistof-klasse specifikt antistof svar til toksin A, toksin B og binære toksin (pCDTb) i patienter med CF uden diar...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Protein Microarray Assay for Serological Determination of Antigen-specific Antibody Responses Following Clostridium difficile Infection at JoVE.com

A Protein Microarray Assay for Serological Determination of Antigen-specific Antibody Responses Following Clostridium difficile Infection

I denne artikel beskrives en simpel protein microarray metode til profilering LUN immun svar til en 7-plex panel af meget renset Clostridium difficile antigener i menneskelige sera. Protokollen kan udvides til bestemmelse af specifikt antistof reaktioner i forberedelserne af polyklonale intravenøs immunglobulin.

Et Protein Microarray analyse for serologisk bestemmelse af Antigen-specifikke antistof reaktioner følgende Clostridium difficile infektion

We provide a detailed overview of a novel high-throughput protein microarray assay for the determination of anti-Clostridium difficile antibody levels in ...

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JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

A Protein Microarray Assay for Serological Determination of Antigen-specific Antibody Responses Following Clostridium difficile Infection

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Antigen Specific In Vivo Killing Assay using CFSE Labeled Target Cells

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Dyrkning og vedligeholdelse<em&gt; Clostridium difficile</em&gt; I et anaerobt miljø

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Cefoperazone-treated Mouse Model of Clinically-relevant Clostridium difficile Strain R20291

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Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming enteric pathogen that is associated with increasing morbidity and mortality and ...

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A Protocol to Characterize the Morphological Changes of Clostridium difficile in Response to Antibiotic Treatment

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