Name: single sensillum recordings for locust palp sensilla basiconica
Uploaded: 2018-06-23T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single Sensillum Recordings for Locust Palp Sensilla Basiconica at JoVE.com

这项工作得到了中国国家自然科学基金 (31472037 号) 的资助。在本条中提及商号或商业产品, 纯粹是为了提供具体资料, 并不意味着建议。

1. 仪器和昆虫的制备
<ol><li>
制备钨电极和刺激溶液
	<ol>
<li>固定一个新的钨线 (直径为0.125 毫米, 长度为75毫米) 成一个机器人, 并锐化它在 10% (瓦特/v) 亚硝酸钠 (纳米2) 溶液中的一个注射器在 10 v 在一个显微镜 (40X 放大倍数) 的电源提供约1分钟。</li>
		<li>将锐钨丝反复浸入10% 纳米2溶液中, 约4毫米, 5 V < 1 分钟 (图 1A)。</li>
		<li>在显微镜下经常检?...

<ol>
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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maxillary+palps+are+broad+spectrum+odorant+detectors+in+Culex+quinquefasciatus.">Maxillary palps are broad spectrum odorant detectors in Culex quinquefasciatus.</a> Chemical Senses. 32 (8), 727-738 (2007).</li><li>Lu, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Odor+coding+in+the+maxillary+palp+of+the+malaria+vector+mosquito+Anopheles+gambiae.">Odor coding in the maxillary palp of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles gambiae.</a> Current Biology. 17 (18), 1533-1544 (2007).</li><li>Pellegrino, M., Nakagawa, T., Vosshall, L. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+sensillum+recordings+in+the+insects+Drosophila+melanogaster+and+Anopheles+gambiae.">Single sensillum recordings in the insects Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 36, e1725 (2010).</li><li>Grant, A. J., Wigton, B. E., Aghajanian, J. G., O'Connell, R. 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F., Sword, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+importance+of+palpation+in+food+selection+by+a+polyphagous+grasshopper+(Orthoptera:+Acrididae).">The importance of palpation in food selection by a polyphagous grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae).</a> Journal of Insect Behavior. 6, 79-91 (1993).</li><li>Winstanley, C., Blaney, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemosensory+mechanisms+of+locusts+in+relation+to+feeding.">Chemosensory mechanisms of locusts in relation to feeding.</a> Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 24, 750-758 (1978).</li><li>Blaney, W., Duckett, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+significance+of+palpation+by+the+maxillary+palps+of+Locusta+migratoria+(L.):+an+electrophysiological+and+behavioural+study.">The significance of palpation by the maxillary palps of Locusta migratoria (L.): an electrophysiological and behavioural study.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 63, 701-712 (1975).</li><li>Blaney, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+responses+of+the+terminal+sensilla+on+the+maxillary+palps+of+Locusta+migratoria+(L.)+to+some+electrolytes+and+non-electrolytes.">Electrophysiological responses of the terminal sensilla on the maxillary palps of Locusta migratoria (L.) to some electrolytes and non-electrolytes.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 60, 275-293 (1974).</li><li>Jin, X., Zhang, S., Zhang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+odorant-binding+and+chemosensory+proteins+and+spatial+map+of+chemosensilla+on+labial+palps+of+Locusta+migratoria+(Orthoptera:+Acrididae).">Expression of odorant-binding and chemosensory proteins and spatial map of chemosensilla on labial palps of Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae).</a> Anthropod Structure &amp; Development. 35 (1), 47-56 (2006).</li><li>Zhang, L., Li, H., Zhang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+olfactory+pathways+to+detect+aldehydes+on+locust+mouthpart.">Two olfactory pathways to detect aldehydes on locust mouthpart.</a> International Journal of Biological Sciences. 13 (6), 759-771 (2017).</li><li>Dweck, H. K. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+channels+associated+with+the+Drosophila+maxillary+palp+mediate+short-+and+long-range+attraction.">Olfactory channels associated with the Drosophila maxillary palp mediate short- and long-range attraction.</a> eLife. 5, e14925 (2016).</li><li>Bohbot, J. D., Sparks, J. T., Dickens, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+maxillary+palp+of+Aedes+aegypti,+a+model+of+multisensory+Integration.">The maxillary palp of Aedes aegypti, a model of multisensory Integration.</a> Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 48, 29-39 (2014).</li><li>Delventhal, R., Kiely, A., Carlson, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+recording+from+Drosophila+labellar+taste+sensilla.">Electrophysiological recording from Drosophila labellar taste sensilla.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 84, e51355 (2014).</li><li>Ng, R., Lin, H. H., Wang, J. W., Su, C. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+recording+from+Drosophila+trichoid+sensilla+in+response+to+odorants+of+low+volatility.">Electrophysiological recording from Drosophila trichoid sensilla in response to odorants of low volatility.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 125, e56147 (2017).</li><li>Syed, Z., Leal, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrophysiological+measurements+from+a+moth+olfactory+system.">Electrophysiological measurements from a moth olfactory system.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 49, e2489 (2011).</li><li>Saha, D., Leong, K., Katta, N., Raman, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-unit+recording+methods+to+characterize+neural+activity+in+the+locust+(Schistocerca+Americana)+olfactory+circuits.">Multi-unit recording methods to characterize neural activity in the locust (Schistocerca Americana) olfactory circuits.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 71, e50139 (2013).</li><li>Liu, F., Liu, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+single+sensillum+recording+to+detect+olfactory+neuron+responses+of+bed+bugs+to+semiochemicals.">Using single sensillum recording to detect olfactory neuron responses of bed bugs to semiochemicals.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. 107, e53337 (2016).</li></ol>

昆虫依靠瓣来检测食物的气味, 他们的瓣被认为在物种13,27中扮演着重要的角色。瓣是一种简单的嗅觉器官, 越来越受到人们的重视, 作为探索 chemosensation28neuromolecular 网络的一个吸引人的模式。
昆虫 labellar 和下颚 SSRs 已成功地在果蝇、按蚊按蚊和淡色致倦13,<sup class="xr...

动物已经进化出一系列的化学感受器官来感知外源化学线索。在昆虫中, 最重要的化学感受器官是触角和瓣。在这些器官, 几种类型的化学感受毛, 称为化学感受触角, 是支配的化学感受神经元 (国别战略说明) 在头发。国别战略说明在化学感受触角识别特定的化学线索, 通过信号转导从化学刺激到电位, 随后转移到中枢神经系统1,2,3.
国别战略说明表达各种化学感受受体 [例如, 气味受体 (口服)], 离子型受体 (IRs) 和味觉受体 (GRs) 在他们的细胞膜上, 编码外源化学线索相关的不同类型的 chemosensation4,5,6。国别战略说明的特性是阐明昆虫 chemoreception 细胞和分子机制的关键。现在单触角记录 (SSR) 是一种广泛使用的技术, 用于国别战略说明昆虫的触角触角的特征, 包括蝇7、蛾8、甲虫9、蚜虫10、蝗虫11和蚂蚁12。然而, 很少有研究将 SSR 应用于昆虫瓣13、14、15、16、17, 因为它们的触角的特殊结构使电生理记录困难18。
成群的蝗虫 (直翅目) 经常造成严重的农作物损害和经济损失19。瓣被认为在蝗虫20、21、22、23、24的食物选择中起着重要作用。采用扫描电镜 (SEM) 对两种化学感受触角进行了研究。通常, 350 触角 chaetica 和 7-8 触角 basiconica 在蝗虫的每个圆顶瓣18被观察。触角 chaetica 是味觉触角, 感觉非挥发性化学线索, 而触角 basiconica 有嗅觉功能, 感知挥发性化学线索。
在蝗虫瓣, 触角 basiconica (约12µm) 的毛插座直径比触角 chaetica (约8 µm)18,25大得多。瓣上触角 basiconica 的表皮壁比触角触角18厚得多。另外, 下颚的圆顶在高度灵活的角质层之内有液体内容。这些特征意味着, 微电极的穿透和良好的电生理信号的获得比触角触角更困难。本文提出了一种用于蝗虫下颚触角 basiconica 的详细、高效的 SSR 协议。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1145px;" width="1145">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:303px;">Tungsten wire</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">ADVENT</td>
			<td style="width:217px;">W559504</td>
			<td style="width:485px;">Used for making the electrode and fixing the palp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">NaNO2</td>
			<td>Sigma-aldrich</td>
			<td>563218-25G</td>
			<td>Used for sharpening the tungsten wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">AC Power Supply</td>
			<td>Syntech</td>
			<td>A2-70</td>
			<td>Providing the voltage in sharpening the tungsten wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Stereoscope</td>
			<td>Motic</td>
			<td>SMZ-163</td>
			<td>Used for observing the sharpening of tungsten wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>W-51</td>
			<td>Used for observing the sensilla on locust maxillary palp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Intelligent Data Acquisition Controller</td>
			<td>Syntech</td>
			<td>IDAC-4</td>
			<td>Real-time on screen display of all signals before and during recording</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Stimulus controller</td>
			<td>Syntech</td>
			<td>CS-55</td>
			<td>Used for controlling the stimulus application</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Electronic micromanipulator</td>
			<td>C.M.D.T</td>
			<td>CFT-8301D</td>
			<td>Used for minor movement of the recording electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>MN-151</td>
			<td>Used for minor movement of the reference electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Speaker</td>
			<td>EDIFIER</td>
			<td>R101T06</td>
			<td>Connected with IDAC-4 and providing sound for the signal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Magnetic base</td>
			<td>PDOK</td>
			<td>PD-101</td>
			<td>Used to hold the electrode, and stimulus delivery tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Vibration Isolation Table</td>
			<td>TianHe</td>
			<td>HAP-100-1208</td>
			<td>Used for isolating the vibration from the equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glass slide</td>
			<td>CITOGLAS</td>
			<td>ZBP-407</td>
			<td>Used for making the base for the MPH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Blu-tack</td>
			<td>Bostik</td>
			<td>Blu-tack-45g</td>
			<td>Fixing the tungsten wire</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">Pasteur tube</td>
			<td>YARE</td>
			<td>WITEG</td>
			<td>Placing the filter paper containing stimuli solutions</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

single sensillum recordings for locust palp sensilla basiconica

蝗虫口器的瓣被认为是传统的味觉器官, 在蝗虫的食物选择中起着重要作用, 特别是通过触角 chaetica 检测非挥发性化学线索 (以前命名的终端触角或冠触角)。现在越来越多的证据表明, 这些瓣也有嗅觉功能。气味受体 (LmigOR2) 和气味结合蛋白 (LmigOBP1) 已分别在神经元和附属细胞, 在触角 basiconica 的瓣。单触角记录 (SSR) 用于记录气味受体神经元的反应, 是筛选特异气味受体活性配体的有效方法。SSR 用于下颚触角气味受体的功能研究。位于瓣圆顶上的触角 basiconica 的结构与天线上的结构有一定的不同。因此, 当执行气味引起的 SSR 时, 一些特定的建议可能有助于获得最佳结果。本文介绍了一种针对昆虫下颚触角 basiconica 的 SSR 的详细、高效的协议。

基于不同反应动力学的化学气味 (10% 1-壬醇和10% 壬酸), 确定了蝗虫上颌下颚的两个触角亚型 (pb1 和 pb2)。pb1 神经元的峰值比壬酸大 1-壬醇, 而 pb2 的神经元比壬醇酸显著降低1壬的活化 (图 4)。己醛和 E-2-Hexenal 能诱发蝗虫下颚26的开放反应。己醛是一个丰富的寄主植物绿叶挥发性, 这可能有助于进一步确认食品来源26?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single Sensillum Recordings for Locust Palp Sensilla Basiconica at JoVE.com

Single Sensillum Recordings for Locust Palp Sensilla Basiconica

本文介绍了触角 basiconica 瓣昆虫口器的单触角记录的一种详细、高效的协议。

蝗虫下颚触角 Basiconica 单触角记录

The palps of locust mouthparts are considered to be conventional gustatory organs that play an important role in a locust&#39;s food selection, especially ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to introduce a detailed and highly effective protocol to make single sensillum recordings from insect palp Sensilla Basiconica. Since mastered can help answer key questions in the dissection chemoreception field. By allowing of specific odorant receptor in palp sensilla.The main advantage of this is that use a recorder Sensilla Basiconia of locust of the palps. To prepare the tungsten electrodes first attach a new tungsten wire into a micro manipulator and observe it under 40 times magnification. Now sharpen the wire by delivering 10 volts to it while using a syringe to apply 10%sodium nitrite.Then reduce the power to five volts and over one minute repeatedly dip four millimeters of the sharpened wire into sodium nitrite solution. When in use the tip must be fine enough to penetrate the cuticle of a locust palp olfactory sensillum. Next prepare the stimulus solutions.Dilute each of the chemical stimulus substances in mineral oil. Make 10%dilutions of 1-Nonanol and Nonanoic acid in mineral oil. Then make a series of tenfold serial dilutions of E-2-Hexenal and Hexanal in mineral oil.Next prepare Pasteur tubes loaded with stimuli. Insert filter paper strips into the tubes and add 10 microliters of the diluted stimulus solutions to the filter paper strips. Then plug the tubes with one milliliter pipette tips.From the recordings make a locust maxillary palp holder from a glass slide, a piece of plastic, a cover slip and double sided tape and rubber tape. Attach the plastic piece to a corner of the slide using double sided tape and then use another piece of tape to attach the cover slip to the plastic piece. Then attach a small piece of red rubber tape onto the cover glass to make it a non-slip surface.Next using the tape attach a tungsten wire 1.5 millimeters parallel to the inside edge of the platform and fix both ends of the wire onto the platform. This completes the holder. Rear the locust on fresh wheat seedlings and at 60%humidity 28 to 30 degrees Celsius and with an 18 hour light cycle.To collect the antenna select one day to three day old fifth instar Locust nymphs. Remove the antenna using fine scissors so they cannot interfere with the recording. To secure the locust use a 1.5 millimeter tube cut in 1/2 vertically.Leave the ventral region and the head of the locust exposed. Then fix the locust and tube to the glass slide with double sided adhesive tape. Next pull the right maxillary palp out and position it onto the platform.Put the tungsten wire at the fourth segment of the palp. Now surround the tungsten wire with blue Taft putty about two millimeters from the maxillary palp. It is critical to the to most properly set up the platform with a centimeter locust maxillary palp holder and to use the tungsten wire to comprise the four segment or the palp.Now view the preparation at 100%times magnification and position the palp perpendicularly to the recording electrode. Next using a micromanipulator insert a tungsten reference electrode into the locust eye. Then move the recording electrode close to the maxillary palp.Next position the odor delivery device about one centimeter from the maxillary palp. Now open the recording software and set the recording parameters. For the recording scale use 500 microvolts.For the high cut off of the filter use 300 hertz. Set the low cutoff to 200 hertz and set the pre-trigger to 10 seconds. Now switch the microscope to a high magnification and insert the recording electrode into the base of a basiconic sensillum on the maxillary palp.Then delicately adjust the recording electrode to obtain good spontaneous spikes. It is very important that the recording electrode penetrates into the base of the sensillum and that once into the sensillum are prepared. Now open the stimulus controller to deliver a continuous airstream at 20 millimeters per second.Next set the stimulation time to one second and record signals for 10 seconds starting 10 seconds before the onset of the stimulus pulse. Now collect the data. Two sensilla subtypes on the locust maxillary palp were distinguishable based on their response dynamics to the chemical stimulants 1-Nonanol and Nonanoic acid.The odorants Hexanal and E-2-Hexanal naturally occurring in food sources can evoke a locust palp opening response. In response E-2-Hexanal pb1 neurons have longer action potentials. Comparing the mean changes in spiking during the five seconds before stimulation to the five seconds after stimulation shows that the response to 1-Nonanol is significantly higher than Nonanoic acid in the pb1 neurons.And the reverse is true for pb2 neurons. The response by these neurons to E-2-Hexenal and hexanal is also dose dependent. The two neuron types have a different dose response pattern to E-2-Hexenal, but the response to hexanal is mostly the same.After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to perform the highly effective single sensilla recording on locust palp Sensilla Basonica. Once mastered the technique can be done if it is performed properly. When attempting this procedure it's important the tube of the palp from when the recording electrode is inserted into the base of sensillum.After this development paved the way for research in the field of insect physiology to the and cellular mechanisms of incellular olfaction in the mouth part.

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Single Sensillum Recordings in the Insects Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae

Single Sensillum Recordings in the Insects Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae

在昆虫单感器记录果蝇按蚊</em

The sense of smell is essential for insects to find foods, mates, predators, and oviposition sites3. Insect olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are enclosed ...

科研

神经科学

Single-unit In vivo Recordings from the Optic Chiasm of Rat

Single-unit In vivo Recordings from the Optic Chiasm of Rat

单机在体内</em从大鼠视交叉>录音

Information about the visual world is transmitted to the brain in sequences of action potentials in retinal ganglion cell axons that make up the optic ...

Electrophysiology of Scorpion Peg Sensilla

毒蝎钉感器电

We describe a modification of an existing tip-recording technique1,2 for electrophysiologically investigating short, peg-like sensory sensilla3,4. On the ...

A Procedure for Implanting Organized Arrays of Microwires for Single-unit Recordings in Awake, Behaving Animals

一个程序植入微丝的有组织阵列的单机录音清醒，举止动物

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell ...

Electrophysiological Recording From Drosophila Labellar Taste Sensilla

Electrophysiological Recording From Drosophila Labellar Taste Sensilla

电生理记录从<em&gt;果蝇</em&gt; Labellar味感器

The peripheral taste response of insects can be powerfully investigated with electrophysiological techniques. The method described here allows the ...

Paired Whole Cell Recordings in Organotypic Hippocampal Slices

在器官型海马脑片搭配全细胞记录

Pair recordings involve simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling not only direct ...

Using Single Sensillum Recording to Detect Olfactory Neuron Responses of Bed Bugs to Semiochemicals

使用单一感器录音来检测臭虫的嗅觉神经元的反应，以信息化学物质

The insect olfactory system plays an important role in detecting semiochemicals in the environment. In particular, the antennal sensilla which house ...

Electrophysiological Method for Whole-cell Voltage Clamp Recordings from Drosophila Photoreceptors

Electrophysiological Method for Whole-cell Voltage Clamp Recordings from Drosophila Photoreceptors

全细胞电压钳记录的电生理方法<em&gt;果蝇</em&gt;光感受器

Whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors have revolutionized the field of invertebrate visual transduction, ...

Localization of Odorant Receptor Genes in Locust Antennae by RNA In Situ Hybridization

Localization of Odorant Receptor Genes in Locust Antennae by RNA In Situ Hybridization

通过RNA定位蝗虫天线中的气味受体基因<em&gt;原位</em&gt;杂交

Insects have evolved sophisticated olfactory reception systems to sense exogenous chemical signals. These chemical signals are transduced by Olfactory ...

Electrophysiological Recording from Drosophila Trichoid Sensilla in Response to Odorants of Low Volatility

Electrophysiological Recording from Drosophila Trichoid Sensilla in Response to Odorants of Low Volatility

电生理记录<em&gt;果蝇</em&gt; Trichoid Sensilla响应低挥发性气味

Insects rely on their sense of smell to guide a wide range of behaviors that are critical for their survival, such as food-seeking, predator avoidance, ...