Name: operant protocols for assessing the cost-benefit analysis during reinforced decision making by rodents
Uploaded: 2018-09-10T13:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents at JoVE.com

这项研究得到了澳大利亚 RMH 神经科学基金会的支持;澳大利亚大脑基金会;澳大利亚 RACP Thyne 里德奖学金;由认知科学和技术委员会的项目赠款, 伊朗对阿巴斯 Haghparast。

这里解释的所有程序都是按照《动物保育和使用指南》批准和执行的, 并经 Florey 研究所动物伦理委员会或神经科学研究中心批准。
1. 住房、搬运和食物限制
<ol><li>使用成年 (通常8周大) 雄性大鼠 (任何菌株), 并保持他们在房间内的12小时的光/暗循环。</li>
	<li>限制他们的食物接触, 鼓励动物执行任务。 注意: 建议动物的住房, 因为它提供更好的控制每一个人的食物摄入量。<...

<ol>
	<li>Gold, J. I., Shadlen, M. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neural+basis+of+decision+making.">The neural basis of decision making.</a> Annual Review of Neuroscience. 30, 535-574 (2007).</li><li>Shi, Z., M&#252;ller, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multisensory+perception+and+action:+development,+decision-making,+and+neural+mechanisms.">Multisensory perception and action: development, decision-making, and neural mechanisms.</a> Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 7, 81 (2013).</li><li>Sutton, R. S., Barto, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction. 1, (1998).</li><li>Khani, A., Rainer, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+and+neurochemical+basis+of+reinforcement-guided+decision+making.">Neural and neurochemical basis of reinforcement-guided decision making.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 116, 724-741 (2016).</li><li>Fatahi, Z., Haghparast, A., Khani, A., Kermani, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+connectivity+between+anterior+cingulate+cortex+and+orbitofrontal+cortex+during+value-based+decision+making.">Functional connectivity between anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex during value-based decision making.</a> Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 147, 74-78 (2018).</li><li>Khani, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+cannabinoid+system+in+anterior+cingulate+cortex+and+orbitofrontal+cortex+modulates+cost-benefit+decision+making.">Activation of cannabinoid system in anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex modulates cost-benefit decision making.</a> Psychopharmacology. 232, 2097-2112 (2015).</li><li>Rudebeck, P. H., Walton, M. E., Smyth, A. N., Bannerman, D. M., Rushworth, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separate+neural+pathways+process+different+decision+costs.">Separate neural pathways process different decision costs.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 9, 1161-1168 (2006).</li><li>Gage, G. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surgical+implantation+of+chronic+neural+electrodes+for+recording+single+unit+activity+and+electrocorticographic+signals.">Surgical implantation of chronic neural electrodes for recording single unit activity and electrocorticographic signals.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (60), e3565 (2012).</li><li>Paxinos, G., Watson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates. , (1998).</li><li>Bokil, H., Andrews, P., Kulkarni, J. E., Mehta, S., Mitra, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronux:+a+platform+for+analyzing+neural+signals.">Chronux: a platform for analyzing neural signals.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 192, 146-151 (2010).</li><li>Cohen, M. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Analyzing Neural Time Series Data: Theory and Practice. , (2014).</li><li>Luk, C. -. H., Wallis, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Choice+coding+in+frontal+cortex+during+stimulus-guided+or+action-guided+decision-making.">Choice coding in frontal cortex during stimulus-guided or action-guided decision-making.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 33, 1864-1871 (2013).</li><li>Rudebeck, P. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frontal+cortex+subregions+play+distinct+roles+in+choices+between+actions+and+stimuli.">Frontal cortex subregions play distinct roles in choices between actions and stimuli.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28, 13775-13785 (2008).</li><li>Goshadrou, F., Kermani, M., Ronaghi, A., Sajjadi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+ghrelin+on+MK-801+induced+memory+impairment+in+rats.">The effect of ghrelin on MK-801 induced memory impairment in rats.</a> Peptides. 44, 60-65 (2013).</li><li>Haghparast, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intrahippocampal+administration+of+D2+but+not+D1+dopamine+receptor+antagonist+suppresses+the+expression+of+conditioned+place+preference+induced+by+morphine+in+the+ventral+tegmental+area.">Intrahippocampal administration of D2 but not D1 dopamine receptor antagonist suppresses the expression of conditioned place preference induced by morphine in the ventral tegmental area.</a> Neuroscience Letters. 541, 138-143 (2013).</li><li>Esmaeili, M. -. H., Kermani, M., Parvishan, A., Haghparast, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+D1/D2+dopamine+receptors+in+the+CA1+region+of+the+rat+hippocampus+in+the+rewarding+effects+of+morphine+administered+into+the+ventral+tegmental+area.">Role of D1/D2 dopamine receptors in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus in the rewarding effects of morphine administered into the ventral tegmental area.</a> Behavioural Brain Research. 231, 111-115 (2012).</li><li>Chaleek, N., Kermani, M., Eliassi, A., Haghparast, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+orexin+and+glucose+microinjected+into+the+hypothalamic+paraventricular+nucleus+on+gastric+acid+secretion+in+conscious+rats.">Effects of orexin and glucose microinjected into the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus on gastric acid secretion in conscious rats.</a> Neurogastroenterology &amp; Motility. 24, e94-e102 (2012).</li><li>Kermani, M., Eliassi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gastric+acid+secretion+induced+by+paraventricular+nucleus+microinjection+of+orexin+A+is+mediated+through+activation+of+neuropeptide+Yergic+system.">Gastric acid secretion induced by paraventricular nucleus microinjection of orexin A is mediated through activation of neuropeptide Yergic system.</a> Neuroscience. 226, 81-88 (2012).</li><li>Kermani, M., Azizi, P., Haghparast, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+nitric+oxide+in+the+effects+of+cumin+(Cuminum+Cyminum+L.)+fruit+essential+oil+on+the+acquisition+of+morphine-induced+conditioned+place+preference+in+adult+male+mice.">The role of nitric oxide in the effects of cumin (Cuminum Cyminum L.) fruit essential oil on the acquisition of morphine-induced conditioned place preference in adult male mice.</a> Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine. , 1-6 (2012).</li><li>Ahmadi, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+and+antinociceptive+behaviors+of+new+methyl+and+hydroxyl+derivatives+of+phencyclidine.">Synthesis and antinociceptive behaviors of new methyl and hydroxyl derivatives of phencyclidine.</a> Current Medicinal Chemistry. 19, 763-769 (2012).</li></ol>

啮齿目动物长期被使用了在处理不同的题目的神经科学研究研究, 从认知能力例如学习和记忆2,14和增强的行为7,15,16对器官的中央控制17,18和神经药理学19,20。拟议的议定书解释了一个复杂的行为?...

决策是根据决策者的价值和偏好以及所选行动1的后果来识别和选择选择的过程。尽管决策在不同领域 (即经济学、心理学和神经科学) 中得到了广泛的研究, 但这种认知能力背后的神经机制尚未得到充分的理解。决策的两个子类是感性决策和增强导向决策。虽然它们包含相当多的重叠元素和概念, 感性决策依赖于现有的感官信息1,2, 而加强导向决策处理相对价值在特定时间刻度3中获得的操作。增强决策的一个重要方面是成本效益分析, 它是通过计算给定选择的好处并减去每种备选方案1的相关成本而直观地执行的。
T 迷宫 (或变种 Y 迷宫) 是使用啮齿动物的认知实验中使用最广泛的迷宫之一。动物被放置在起始臂 (T 的底部), 并允许选择目标臂 (其中一个侧臂)。任务, 如强迫交替或左-右歧视主要是用来与啮齿类动物在 T 迷宫测试参考和工作记忆4。T 迷宫也广泛用于决策实验5,6,7。在最简单的设计中, 奖励只放在一个目标臂上。这种选择是可以预测的, 而无论奖励价值如何, 动物们肯定更喜欢奖赏而不是一无所有。另一种选择是在两个目标武器中放置奖励, 然后让动物根据几个参数 (即动物的自然喜好、奖励的价值和支付的费用) 选择哪条路径。在基于价值的设计中, 由于具有称量尺度属性, 任务更加复杂。这样, 动物通过在两种替代品之间选择, 以及在行动的成本 (即等待的量 (延迟) 或获得奖励所需的努力 (基于努力的工作量) 之间, 得到不同的价值奖赏,每个作出贡献的决定,5,6。
在传统的基于延迟的 T 迷宫决策中, 动物被训练来选择高奖赏臂 (HRA), 避免相反的低奖赏臂 (上帝军)。在整个实验中, HRA 和上帝抵抗军的两侧保持不变。尽管上述任务在文献中有很好的记载, 但它还是有几个程序上的弊端。首先, 通过有一个固定的目标手臂, 动物知道哪一个手臂选择从一开始的试验。在这种情况下, 动物可以根据记忆而不是决策来选择目标臂。因此, 在一个基于延迟的决策范式中, 如果动物因为研究干预而选择了低报酬, 就不清楚这是由于记忆力的丧失还是学习干预的缘故。记忆控制小组分离观察的行为从记忆问题可能被考虑, 但这负担研究员和动物一样由于另外的工作7。第二个问题是动物做出决定的时刻: 一旦动物到达决策区 (所有三臂的交界处), 他们通常会向左和向右看, 权衡每只手臂的成本和利益, 然后做出决定。然而, 经过几次试验, 他们在到达决策区之前进行这样的计算, 直接跑到奖励臂上。因此, 这两个缺点-一只手臂的预偏向, 并发现决策的时刻-都高度中断了对电生理和神经影像数据的解释。
在本文所解释的方法中, 首选臂 (HRA) 由听觉线索提示, 并可能因试用而异。动物通过进入测试区 (图 1) 启动试验, 并通过 "鼻子戳" 的红外线门触发听觉提示, 该闸门已放置在三臂的交界处。音频信号 (20 分贝, 介于500和 1000 ms) 是从扬声器在目标臂的末尾播放。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>T-maze</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Self made</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dustless Precision Sugar Pellets</td>
			<td>TSE Systems Intl. Group</td>
			<td>F0023</td>
			<td>45 mg, Sucrose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine Hydrochloride Injection, USP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>6740-87-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7361-61-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereotaxic device</td>
			<td>Stoelting</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isofluran</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-363629Rx</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PFA-coated stainless-steel wires</td>
			<td>A-M systems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>acrylic cement</td>
			<td>Vertex, MA, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(wooden or PVC (polyvinyl chloride)-made)</td>
			<td>local suppliers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-Fit Power Connector</td>
			<td>Molex</td>
			<td>15243048</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethannol 70%</td>
			<td>Local suppliers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>buprenorphine</td>
			<td>diamondback drugs</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arduino UNO</td>
			<td>Arduino</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://www.arduino.cc/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Infrared emitting diode</td>
			<td>Sharp</td>
			<td>GL480E00000F</td>
			<td>http://www.sharp-world.com/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chronux Toolbox</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chronux.org</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arduino codes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://github.com/dechuans/arduino-maze</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

operant protocols for assessing the cost-benefit analysis during reinforced decision making by rodents

强化导向决策是根据利益的相对价值及其后果选择竞争的行动路线之间的能力。这一过程是人类正常行为的组成部分, 被证明被神经和精神紊乱, 如成瘾、精神分裂症和抑郁症所扰乱。啮齿类动物早已被用来揭示人类认知的神经生物学。为此, 制定了若干行为任务;然而, 大多数是非自动化的, 是劳动密集型的。最近开发的开源微控制器使研究人员能够自动化基于操作的任务来评估各种认知任务, 规范刺激演示, 改进数据记录, 从而提高研究成果。在这里, 我们描述了一种自动化的基于延迟的增强导向决策任务, 使用由定制软件程序控制的操作性 T 迷宫。利用这些决策任务, 我们展示了大鼠前扣带皮层局部场电位活动的变化, 同时进行了基于延迟的成本和效益决策任务。

这里提供的数据是从左眶皮质 (LFP) 和前扣带皮质 (ACC) 的记录使用双极电极 (粉煤灰涂层不锈钢)。表 1显示了每个训练阶段的行为习得长度。目标位置的坐标是从鼠脑图谱9确定的, 如下: 为 AAC, 1.2 毫米前的 bregma, 0.8 毫米侧向中线, 和2毫米腹侧的头骨;对于 bregma, 3.5 毫米的前部, 2.3 毫米侧向中线, 5.4 毫米腹侧的头骨。
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents at JoVE.com

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

啮齿动物强化决策中成本效益分析的操作协议

成本效益分析是大脑在决策过程中进行的一种称重尺度方法。在这里, 我们提出了一个训练老鼠的协议, 在一个以操作为基础的决策范式中, 老鼠选择更高的奖赏, 代价是等待十五年代的接收。

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their ...

This technique can answer key questions in cognitive neurosciences such as how comparing consequences and causes can affect making a decision. The main advantage of this technique is that the special elements such as the location of the board do not affect the animal's decision. Begin by restricting food access to adult male rats in a room with a 12-hour light/dark cycle.On days one to three, handle the animals for five minutes twice a day. Then, weigh the animals after each handling session to determine the free-feeding amount. Next, obtain a T maze equipped with three partitions or arms, two stimulus speakers, five retractable doors, and five infrared motion sensors or Infrared Beam or IRB sensors.Copy the experimental software code into the computer. Then, download the experimental software and install it on a computer. Connect the microcontroller to the computer using a USB port.Next, on the computer, click the software icon, go to Tools and then select Port. From the dropdown menu, choose the COM port which connects the software to the computer. Go to Tools and select Boards.From the dropdown menu, select the type of software that controls the T maze. Then, click Upload on the top left of the interface window. Select the experimental software code, wait until the process finishes.After the process has finished, click Serial Monitor at the top right of the interface window. Then, in a new popup window, change the baud rate to 115, 200. For five days prior to the experimental day, bring the animals to the experiment room for at least one hour.Leave 10 sugar pellets at each goal arm and leave all doors open. During days one through three, place the animals individually in the maze for periods of 10 minutes once per day to explore the maze with no restrictions. During days four through five, place the animals individually in the maze.Leave two pellets in each arm and allow them to sample the food from both sides. Remove the animal from the maze immediately after eating the pellets from both sides or after five minutes of being in the maze. Finally, after each habituation session, clean the maze's floors with 70%ethanol and make sure the ethanol has evaporated before placing the next animal in the maze.On day six, bring the animals to the experiment room at least one hour prior to the experiment. Run the software program and set the trial number to 14 of which the first four trials will be forced choice and the rest will be choice trials. Before each trial begins, place four pellets in the goal arm which is to be cued as the High Reward Arm, HRA, and two pellets in the other arm which is the Low Reward Arm, LRA.For the forced choice trial training, pseudo randomly block one arm before each trial so that the animal is forced to select the other arm. Place an animal in the start box. After five to seven seconds, simultaneously open the start gate and click Start in the software's interface window.Collect the animal immediately after eating pellets or after five minutes of being in the maze and leave the animal in the home cage for two minutes. Prior to each trial, close door B in the arm which is selected by the software to be the HRA. Leave door A open in the opposite arm, the LRA.Then, place an animal in the start box. After five to seven seconds, simultaneously open the start gate and click Start. Let the animal freely choose either arm.If the animal chooses the HRA, open door A, let the animal enter the chamber, shut door A and open door B immediately to give the animal access to the selected food well. If the animal chooses the LRA, open door B in order to give the animal access to the food well. Next, remove the animal after it has eaten all the food in the selected food well and leave it in the home cage for two minutes.Complete the 10 choice trials for each animal and record the animal's choice, either HRA or LRA in each trial. Calculate the percentage of High Reward Choice, HRC, for all choice trials after each training session. Finally, after each animal has reached 80%of HRC in the discrimination training, complete the delay training by opening door B after a five-second delay once the animal chooses the HRA.Run 10 trials per day for each animal. Results indicated that there was a decrease in both the low and the high frequency powers in the ACC from the onset to the end of the stimulus. Comparing the time spent outside the chamber with the time in the chamber, the spectral analysis showed no changes in the oscillatory activities in the ACC.Further, mid to high frequency band activities in the OFC increased following the stimulus onset. No significant changes were observed in the pre-chamber and chamber time windows when they were compared together. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remove any source of anxiety as it can affect the animal's decision and impair the reliability of the result.

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

睾酮和社会决策，结合行为内分泌和实验经济学：

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in ...

科研

神经科学

Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse

在鼠标的操作性感觉寻求

Operant methods are powerful behavioral tools for the study of motivated behavior.  These 'self-administration' methods have been used extensively in drug ...

Isolating Nasal Olfactory Stem Cells from Rodents or Humans

隔离啮齿类动物或人类的鼻嗅干细胞

The olfactory mucosa, located in the nasal cavity, is in charge of detecting odours. It is also the only nervous tissue that is exposed to the external ...

T-maze Forced Alternation and Left-right Discrimination Tasks for Assessing Working and Reference Memory in Mice

T-迷宫强迫交替和评估工作，并参考在小鼠记忆的左，右的歧视任务

Forced alternation and left-right discrimination tasks using the T-maze have been widely used to assess working and reference memory, respectively, in ...

Large-scale Recording of Neurons by Movable Silicon Probes in Behaving Rodents

移动硅探针的神经行为鼠害的大型记录

A major challenge in neuroscience is linking behavior to the collective activity of neural assemblies. Understanding of input-output relationships of ...

A Fully Automated and Highly Versatile System for Testing Multi-cognitive Functions and Recording Neuronal Activities in Rodents

一个多认知功能测试，并记录在啮齿动物的神经元活动的完全自动化和高度灵活的系统

We have developed a fully automated system for operant behavior testing and neuronal activity recording by which multiple cognitive brain functions can be ...

A Polished and Reinforced Thinned-skull Window for Long-term Imaging of the Mouse Brain

抛光和钢筋，颅骨变薄窗口，为长期的小鼠脑成像

In vivo imaging of cortical function requires optical access to the brain without disruption of the intracranial environment. We present a method to form ...

Microdialysis of Ethanol During Operant Ethanol Self-administration and Ethanol Determination by Gas Chromatography

微透析的乙醇操作性乙醇的自我管理和乙醇的测定气相色谱

Operant self-administration methods are commonly used to study the behavioral and pharmacological effects of many drugs of abuse, including ethanol.  ...

Recording and Analysis of Circadian Rhythms in Running-wheel Activity in Rodents

运行轮活动在啮齿类动物的昼夜节律的记录和分析

When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5. Nocturnal rodents, ...

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

经颅磁刺激在线联合方法对经颅交流电刺激对原发性运动皮层的影响

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific ...