Name: operant protocols for assessing the cost-benefit analysis during reinforced decision making by rodents
Uploaded: 2018-09-10T13:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents at JoVE.com

Denne forskning blev støttet af RMH neurovidenskab Foundation, Australien; den australske hjernen Foundation; RACP Thyne Reid Fellowship, Australien; og ved et projekt giver fra kognitiv videnskab og teknologi Rådet, Iran til Abbas Haghparast.

Alle procedurer forklares her blev godkendt og udført i overensstemmelse med retningslinjer for pleje og anvendelse af forsøgsdyr og blev godkendt af Florey Institute dyr etiske komité eller Neuroscience Research Center.
1. boliger, håndtering og mad begrænsning
<ol><li>Bruge voksen (normalt 8 uger gammel) mandlige rotter (enhver stammer) og holde dem i rummet med en 12-h lys/mørke cyklus.</li>
	<li>Begrænse deres mad for at tilskynde dyrene til at udføre opgaven. Note: Boliger dy...

<ol>
	<li>Gold, J. I., Shadlen, M. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neural+basis+of+decision+making.">The neural basis of decision making.</a> Annual Review of Neuroscience. 30, 535-574 (2007).</li><li>Shi, Z., M&#252;ller, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multisensory+perception+and+action:+development,+decision-making,+and+neural+mechanisms.">Multisensory perception and action: development, decision-making, and neural mechanisms.</a> Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 7, 81 (2013).</li><li>Sutton, R. S., Barto, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction. 1, (1998).</li><li>Khani, A., Rainer, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+and+neurochemical+basis+of+reinforcement-guided+decision+making.">Neural and neurochemical basis of reinforcement-guided decision making.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 116, 724-741 (2016).</li><li>Fatahi, Z., Haghparast, A., Khani, A., Kermani, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+connectivity+between+anterior+cingulate+cortex+and+orbitofrontal+cortex+during+value-based+decision+making.">Functional connectivity between anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex during value-based decision making.</a> Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 147, 74-78 (2018).</li><li>Khani, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+cannabinoid+system+in+anterior+cingulate+cortex+and+orbitofrontal+cortex+modulates+cost-benefit+decision+making.">Activation of cannabinoid system in anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex modulates cost-benefit decision making.</a> Psychopharmacology. 232, 2097-2112 (2015).</li><li>Rudebeck, P. H., Walton, M. E., Smyth, A. N., Bannerman, D. M., Rushworth, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separate+neural+pathways+process+different+decision+costs.">Separate neural pathways process different decision costs.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 9, 1161-1168 (2006).</li><li>Gage, G. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surgical+implantation+of+chronic+neural+electrodes+for+recording+single+unit+activity+and+electrocorticographic+signals.">Surgical implantation of chronic neural electrodes for recording single unit activity and electrocorticographic signals.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (60), e3565 (2012).</li><li>Paxinos, G., Watson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates. , (1998).</li><li>Bokil, H., Andrews, P., Kulkarni, J. E., Mehta, S., Mitra, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronux:+a+platform+for+analyzing+neural+signals.">Chronux: a platform for analyzing neural signals.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 192, 146-151 (2010).</li><li>Cohen, M. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Analyzing Neural Time Series Data: Theory and Practice. , (2014).</li><li>Luk, C. -. H., Wallis, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Choice+coding+in+frontal+cortex+during+stimulus-guided+or+action-guided+decision-making.">Choice coding in frontal cortex during stimulus-guided or action-guided decision-making.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 33, 1864-1871 (2013).</li><li>Rudebeck, P. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frontal+cortex+subregions+play+distinct+roles+in+choices+between+actions+and+stimuli.">Frontal cortex subregions play distinct roles in choices between actions and stimuli.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28, 13775-13785 (2008).</li><li>Goshadrou, F., Kermani, M., Ronaghi, A., Sajjadi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+ghrelin+on+MK-801+induced+memory+impairment+in+rats.">The effect of ghrelin on MK-801 induced memory impairment in rats.</a> Peptides. 44, 60-65 (2013).</li><li>Haghparast, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intrahippocampal+administration+of+D2+but+not+D1+dopamine+receptor+antagonist+suppresses+the+expression+of+conditioned+place+preference+induced+by+morphine+in+the+ventral+tegmental+area.">Intrahippocampal administration of D2 but not D1 dopamine receptor antagonist suppresses the expression of conditioned place preference induced by morphine in the ventral tegmental area.</a> Neuroscience Letters. 541, 138-143 (2013).</li><li>Esmaeili, M. -. H., Kermani, M., Parvishan, A., Haghparast, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+D1/D2+dopamine+receptors+in+the+CA1+region+of+the+rat+hippocampus+in+the+rewarding+effects+of+morphine+administered+into+the+ventral+tegmental+area.">Role of D1/D2 dopamine receptors in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus in the rewarding effects of morphine administered into the ventral tegmental area.</a> Behavioural Brain Research. 231, 111-115 (2012).</li><li>Chaleek, N., Kermani, M., Eliassi, A., Haghparast, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+orexin+and+glucose+microinjected+into+the+hypothalamic+paraventricular+nucleus+on+gastric+acid+secretion+in+conscious+rats.">Effects of orexin and glucose microinjected into the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus on gastric acid secretion in conscious rats.</a> Neurogastroenterology &amp; Motility. 24, e94-e102 (2012).</li><li>Kermani, M., Eliassi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gastric+acid+secretion+induced+by+paraventricular+nucleus+microinjection+of+orexin+A+is+mediated+through+activation+of+neuropeptide+Yergic+system.">Gastric acid secretion induced by paraventricular nucleus microinjection of orexin A is mediated through activation of neuropeptide Yergic system.</a> Neuroscience. 226, 81-88 (2012).</li><li>Kermani, M., Azizi, P., Haghparast, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+nitric+oxide+in+the+effects+of+cumin+(Cuminum+Cyminum+L.)+fruit+essential+oil+on+the+acquisition+of+morphine-induced+conditioned+place+preference+in+adult+male+mice.">The role of nitric oxide in the effects of cumin (Cuminum Cyminum L.) fruit essential oil on the acquisition of morphine-induced conditioned place preference in adult male mice.</a> Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine. , 1-6 (2012).</li><li>Ahmadi, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+and+antinociceptive+behaviors+of+new+methyl+and+hydroxyl+derivatives+of+phencyclidine.">Synthesis and antinociceptive behaviors of new methyl and hydroxyl derivatives of phencyclidine.</a> Current Medicinal Chemistry. 19, 763-769 (2012).</li></ol>

Gnavere har længe været anvendt i neurovidenskabelige studier, der beskæftiger sig med forskellige emner, lige fra kognitive evner såsom læring og hukommelse2,14 og forstærket adfærd7,15,16 den centrale kontrol af organer17,18 og neuropharmacology19,20</...

Beslutningsprocessen er processen med at anerkende og vælge valg baseret på værdier og præferencer af beslutningstager og konsekvenserne af den markerede handling1. Selv om beslutningstagning er blevet grundigt undersøgt på forskellige områder (dvs., økonomi, psykologi, og neurovidenskab), neurale mekanismer, der ligger til grund for sådanne kognitive evner ikke er endnu fuldt forstået. To underkategorier af beslutningsprocessen er perceptuelle beslutningstagningen og forstærkning-styrede beslutningstagning. Selvom de optage betydelig overlappende elementer og begreber, perceptuelle beslutningstagning er baseret på tilgængelige sensorisk information1,2, der henviser til, at forstærkning-styrede beslutningstagning beskæftiger sig med den relative værdi aktioner fik over en bestemt tidshorisont3. Et vigtigt aspekt af forstærket beslutningstagning er cost benefit-analyse, som er udført intuitivt af hjernen ved computing fordelene ved de givne valg og fratrække de dermed forbundne omkostninger for hvert alternativ1.
T-maze (eller variant Y-labyrint) er en af de mest anvendte labyrinter i kognitive eksperimenter ved hjælp af gnavere. Dyr er placeret i start arm (base af T) og lov til at vælge mål-armen (en af de side våbnene). Opgaver som en tvungen vekslen eller højre-forskelsbehandling er hovedsagelig anvendes med gnavere i T-maze for at teste reference og arbejder hukommelse4. T-labyrinter er også meget udbredt i beslutningstagningen eksperimenter5,6,7. I den enkleste design, er belønningen placeret i kun ét mål arm. Valget er forudsigelig, og dyr ville helt sikkert foretrække belønningen i stedet for ingenting, uanset hvilken værdi der belønning. En anden mulighed er at placere belønninger i begge mål arme og derefter lade dyrene træffe et valg om hvilken vej at tage afhængig af flere parametre (dvs, det naturlige præference for dyret, forskellen i værdi af belønninger, og omkostningerne skal betales). I den værdibaserede design, er opgaven mere kompliceret med vejning skala egenskaber. På denne måde modtager et dyr forskelligt værdsat belønninger ved at vælge mellem de to alternativer samt mellem udgifterne til aktioner [i.e., mængden af venter (forsinkelse-baserede) eller mængden af indsats (indsats-baseret) for at modtage belønninger], hver bidrager til den beslutning, der er lavet5,6.
I traditionelle forsinkelse-baserede T-maze beslutningstagning, dyrene er uddannet til at vælge høj belønning arm (HRA) og undgå modsat lav belønning arm (LRA). Sider af HRA og LRA forbliver uændrede i hele eksperimentet. Selv om opgaven beskrevet ovenfor har været veldokumenteret i litteraturen, lider det under flere proceduremæssige ulemper. For det første ved at have et fast mål arm, ved dyret som arm til at vælge fra begyndelsen af hvert forsøg. I dette scenario kan dyr Vælg mål arm baseret på deres hukommelse i stedet for beslutningstagning. Derfor, i en forsinkelse-baserede besluttende paradigme, hvis et dyr vælger den lav belønning på grund af den undersøgelse intervention, det vil ikke være klar om dette skyldes et tab af hukommelse eller til undersøgelse intervention. Kan betragtes som en hukommelse kontrolgruppe at adskille den observerede opførsel fra hukommelsesproblem, men det tynger forskere og dyr både på grund af den ekstra arbejde7. En anden bekymring er tidspunktet for beslutningstagning af dyret: når dyr når zonen beslutning (krydset af alle tre arme), de normalt ser til venstre og til højre, afveje omkostninger og fordele med hensyn til hver arm, og derefter træffe deres beslutning. Men efter et par forsøg, de udfører sådan en beregning før ankommer til zonen beslutning og bare køre direkte til belønning arm. Som et resultat, disse to ulemper — en pre bias til én arm og finde tidspunktet for beslutningsprocessen — begge meget afbryde fortolkning af elektrofysiologiske og neuroimaging data.
I metoden forklares i dette papir, den foretrukne arm (HRA) er cued af en auditiv cue og variere fra prøveversion til retssagen. Dyr indlede forsøg ved at indtaste test zone (figur 1) og udløser den auditive cue af "næse poking" en infrarød port, der er blevet placeret ved krydset mellem de tre våben. Lydsignalet (20 dB, mellem 500 og 1.000 ms) spilles fra en højttaler i slutningen af mål arm.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>T-maze</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Self made</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dustless Precision Sugar Pellets</td>
			<td>TSE Systems Intl. Group</td>
			<td>F0023</td>
			<td>45 mg, Sucrose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine Hydrochloride Injection, USP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>6740-87-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>7361-61-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereotaxic device</td>
			<td>Stoelting</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isofluran</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-363629Rx</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PFA-coated stainless-steel wires</td>
			<td>A-M systems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>acrylic cement</td>
			<td>Vertex, MA, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(wooden or PVC (polyvinyl chloride)-made)</td>
			<td>local suppliers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-Fit Power Connector</td>
			<td>Molex</td>
			<td>15243048</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethannol 70%</td>
			<td>Local suppliers</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>buprenorphine</td>
			<td>diamondback drugs</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arduino UNO</td>
			<td>Arduino</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://www.arduino.cc/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Infrared emitting diode</td>
			<td>Sharp</td>
			<td>GL480E00000F</td>
			<td>http://www.sharp-world.com/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chronux Toolbox</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chronux.org</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arduino codes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://github.com/dechuans/arduino-maze</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

operant protocols for assessing the cost-benefit analysis during reinforced decision making by rodents

Forstærkning-styrede beslutningstagning er evnen til at vælge mellem konkurrerende kurser baseret på den relative værdi af fordelene og deres konsekvenser. Denne proces er en integreret del af normal menneskelig adfærd og har vist sig at være forstyrret af neurologiske og psykiatriske lidelser som misbrug, skizofreni og depression. Gnavere har længe været brugt til at afdække neurobiologi i den menneskelige erkendelsesevne. Med henblik herpå, er blevet udviklet flere adfærdsmæssige opgaver; men de fleste er ikke-automatiserede og er arbejdskrævende. Den seneste udvikling af open source microcontroller har aktiveret forskere til at automatisere operant-baserede opgaver for at vurdere en række kognitive opgaver, standardisere stimulus præsentation, forbedring af dataregistrering og dermed forbedre forskningsresultaterne. Her, beskriver vi en automatiseret forsinkelse-baserede forstærkning-styrede besluttende opgave, ved hjælp af en operant T-maze kontrolleret af brugerdefinerede-skrevet software-programmer. Bruger disse besluttende opgaver, viser vi ændringerne i de lokale felt potentielle aktiviteter i den forreste cingulate cortex af en rotte, mens det udfører en forsinkelse-baserede costbenefit-og beslutningsprocessen opgave.

De data præsenteres her er den indspillet LFP fra venstre orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) og den forreste cingulate cortex (ACC) af seks mandlige Wistar rotter ved hjælp af bipolar elektroder (af PFA-belagt rustfrit stål). Tabel 1 viser de adfærdsmæssige erhvervelse længde for hver uddannelse fase. Koordinaterne for målområder blev bestemt ud fra en rotte hjerne atlas9 og er som følger: til AAC, 1,2 mm foran bregma, 0,8 mm lateral til midterlin...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents at JoVE.com

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Operant protokoller for at vurdere Cost-benefit-analysen under forstærket beslutningstagning af gnavere

En cost-benefit-analyse er en vejning skala tilgang, som hjernen udfører i løbet af beslutningsprocessen. Her foreslår vi en protokol til at træne rotter på en operant-baserede besluttende paradigme hvor rotter vælge højere belønninger på bekostning af venter 15 s til at modtage dem.

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their ...

This technique can answer key questions in cognitive neurosciences such as how comparing consequences and causes can affect making a decision. The main advantage of this technique is that the special elements such as the location of the board do not affect the animal's decision. Begin by restricting food access to adult male rats in a room with a 12-hour light/dark cycle.On days one to three, handle the animals for five minutes twice a day. Then, weigh the animals after each handling session to determine the free-feeding amount. Next, obtain a T maze equipped with three partitions or arms, two stimulus speakers, five retractable doors, and five infrared motion sensors or Infrared Beam or IRB sensors.Copy the experimental software code into the computer. Then, download the experimental software and install it on a computer. Connect the microcontroller to the computer using a USB port.Next, on the computer, click the software icon, go to Tools and then select Port. From the dropdown menu, choose the COM port which connects the software to the computer. Go to Tools and select Boards.From the dropdown menu, select the type of software that controls the T maze. Then, click Upload on the top left of the interface window. Select the experimental software code, wait until the process finishes.After the process has finished, click Serial Monitor at the top right of the interface window. Then, in a new popup window, change the baud rate to 115, 200. For five days prior to the experimental day, bring the animals to the experiment room for at least one hour.Leave 10 sugar pellets at each goal arm and leave all doors open. During days one through three, place the animals individually in the maze for periods of 10 minutes once per day to explore the maze with no restrictions. During days four through five, place the animals individually in the maze.Leave two pellets in each arm and allow them to sample the food from both sides. Remove the animal from the maze immediately after eating the pellets from both sides or after five minutes of being in the maze. Finally, after each habituation session, clean the maze's floors with 70%ethanol and make sure the ethanol has evaporated before placing the next animal in the maze.On day six, bring the animals to the experiment room at least one hour prior to the experiment. Run the software program and set the trial number to 14 of which the first four trials will be forced choice and the rest will be choice trials. Before each trial begins, place four pellets in the goal arm which is to be cued as the High Reward Arm, HRA, and two pellets in the other arm which is the Low Reward Arm, LRA.For the forced choice trial training, pseudo randomly block one arm before each trial so that the animal is forced to select the other arm. Place an animal in the start box. After five to seven seconds, simultaneously open the start gate and click Start in the software's interface window.Collect the animal immediately after eating pellets or after five minutes of being in the maze and leave the animal in the home cage for two minutes. Prior to each trial, close door B in the arm which is selected by the software to be the HRA. Leave door A open in the opposite arm, the LRA.Then, place an animal in the start box. After five to seven seconds, simultaneously open the start gate and click Start. Let the animal freely choose either arm.If the animal chooses the HRA, open door A, let the animal enter the chamber, shut door A and open door B immediately to give the animal access to the selected food well. If the animal chooses the LRA, open door B in order to give the animal access to the food well. Next, remove the animal after it has eaten all the food in the selected food well and leave it in the home cage for two minutes.Complete the 10 choice trials for each animal and record the animal's choice, either HRA or LRA in each trial. Calculate the percentage of High Reward Choice, HRC, for all choice trials after each training session. Finally, after each animal has reached 80%of HRC in the discrimination training, complete the delay training by opening door B after a five-second delay once the animal chooses the HRA.Run 10 trials per day for each animal. Results indicated that there was a decrease in both the low and the high frequency powers in the ACC from the onset to the end of the stimulus. Comparing the time spent outside the chamber with the time in the chamber, the spectral analysis showed no changes in the oscillatory activities in the ACC.Further, mid to high frequency band activities in the OFC increased following the stimulus onset. No significant changes were observed in the pre-chamber and chamber time windows when they were compared together. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remove any source of anxiety as it can affect the animal's decision and impair the reliability of the result.

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in ...

Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse

Operant methods are powerful behavioral tools for the study of motivated behavior.  These 'self-administration' methods have been used extensively in drug ...

Isolating Nasal Olfactory Stem Cells from Rodents or Humans

The olfactory mucosa, located in the nasal cavity, is in charge of detecting odours. It is also the only nervous tissue that is exposed to the external ...

T-maze Forced Alternation and Left-right Discrimination Tasks for Assessing Working and Reference Memory in Mice

T-labyrint Tvungen Alternation og Venstre-højre forskelsbehandling Opgaver for vurdering af arbejds-og referencedokument Hukommelse i mus

Forced alternation and left-right discrimination tasks using the T-maze have been widely used to assess working and reference memory, respectively, in ...

Large-scale Recording of Neurons by Movable Silicon Probes in Behaving Rodents

Storstilet Registrering af neuroner ved Flytbare Silicon Probes at opføre sig Gnavere

A major challenge in neuroscience is linking behavior to the collective activity of neural assemblies. Understanding of input-output relationships of ...

A Fully Automated and Highly Versatile System for Testing Multi-cognitive Functions and Recording Neuronal Activities in Rodents

En fuldt automatiseret og meget alsidige system for afprøvning Multi-kognitive funktioner og registrering af Neurale Aktiviteter i Gnavere

We have developed a fully automated system for operant behavior testing and neuronal activity recording by which multiple cognitive brain functions can be ...

A Polished and Reinforced Thinned-skull Window for Long-term Imaging of the Mouse Brain

En poleret og forstærket tyndt befolket kranie Window for langsigtet Imaging af Mouse Brain

In vivo imaging of cortical function requires optical access to the brain without disruption of the intracranial environment. We present a method to form ...

Microdialysis of Ethanol During Operant Ethanol Self-administration and Ethanol Determination by Gas Chromatography

Mikrodialyse af ethanol under operant ethanol selvforvaltning og ethanol bestemmelse ved gaschromatografi

Operant self-administration methods are commonly used to study the behavioral and pharmacological effects of many drugs of abuse, including ethanol.  ...

Recording and Analysis of Circadian Rhythms in Running-wheel Activity in Rodents

When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5. Nocturnal rodents, ...

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Virkningerne af transkranial vekselstrøm Stimulation på den primære Motor Cortex af Online kombineret tilgang med transkranial magnetisk Stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific ...