We thank Emily Meineke for contributions to the original study design and experiment. We thank Ryan Boyles for facilitating access to the study sites and weather-station data. Jaime Collazo, Steven Frank, and Erica Henry provided the data loggers and radiation shields. Access to study site was approved by the North Carolina State Climate Office. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

1. Construction of the Radiation Shield
<ol>
	<li>Using a utility knife, cut the corrugated plastic sheets into squares (Figure 1A). One 15 cm square and two 10 cm squares will be needed for each shield.</li>
	<li>Cuts for the top layer of the small radiation shield (Figure 1B; left image):
	<ol>
		<li>On the 15 cm square, measure 4 cm from one edge and draw a line with a pencil. Use a straightedge as a guide to score along the line. (Herein, &#8220;scoring&#8221; means using a knife to make a cut that goes through only one layer of corrugated plastic sheet, rather than the entire sheet.) Henceforth this edge of the square will be referred to as the &#8220;top&#8221; (Figure 1B; left image).</li>
		<li>Measure 3.8 cm from the edges that are perpendicular to the 4 cm line. Use a straightedge as a guide to score from the bottom up to the 4 cm line (Figure 1B; left image).</li>
		<li>Draw a line from both corners above the 4 cm line to the junction of the 4 cm and 3.8 cm lines. Cut along this line (Figure 1B; left image).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cuts for the middle and bottom layers of the small radiation shield (Figure 1B; middle and right images):
	<ol>
		<li>Using a straightedge, draw a 6 cm square in the middle of each 10 cm square (Figure 1B; middle and right images).</li>
		<li>Score all around the 6 cm square, and from each corner of the 6 cm square to the outer corners of the 10 cm square (Figure 1B; middle and right images).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Use aluminum foil tape to completely cover the scored side of the 15 cm square and one of the 10 cm squares, and the un-scored side of the other 10 cm square.</li>
	<li>Using a 1/4&#8221; drill bit, drill holes as shown in Figure 1C, in each of the shield layers.</li>
	<li>Attach a temperature sensor to the underside of the 10 cm square, which is taped on the scored side and has the two holes drilled into the middle, by running the cable tie through the eyelet of the sensor housing (or its mounting device) and through the holes in the 10 cm square (Figure 1D).</li>
	<li>Folding the sheets.
	<ol>
		<li>Fold the 15 cm sheet along the scored lines. Pressure may be needed in case the tape makes the sides tight and difficult to fold.</li>
		<li>Tuck the small triangular flaps on the inside of the larger back flap. When this is done correctly, only taped sides are visible from above. The cut edge of the back flap should be flush with the folded sides.</li>
		<li>Use another layer of aluminum tape to secure the folded sides to the back flap. The back flaps could also be stapled together, with a heavy-duty stapler, for added strength.</li>
		<li>Take the 10 cm sheets and pinch the sides together along the diagonal scored line. Using a heavy-duty stapler, staple the pinched sides together (Figure 1E). The end product will have a square-bowl shape.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Tying the sheets together with 20 cm cable ties.
	<ol>
		<li>Beginning with the 10 cm sheet taped on the unscored side, with three holes, place the taped side down. Thread a cable tie through the left back hole of both 10 cm sheets. Leave 2 cm vertical spacing between the two sheets to ensure air flow around the temperature sensor. Repeat this step for the back right hole (Figure 1E; middle and right images).</li>
		<li>Take the 15 cm sheet and pass a cable tie through the two side-by-side holes, in the back left (Figure 1E; left image). Attach this tie to the 10 cm sheets, also leaving 2 cm of space between the 15 cm sheet and the top of the upper 10 cm sheet. Repeat this step for the two side-by-side holes in the back right (Figure 1E; left image).</li>
		<li>Finally, pass one cable tie through all three holes in the front of the sheets (shown by the arrow; Figure 1E). Tighten the cable tie, ensuring the space is even between all three sheets (Figure 1F).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Drill additional holes into the back end of the final assembled product to facilitate mounting, where needed. Wherever the shield is mounted, ensure that the three sheets lay parallel to the ground.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58273/58273fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Step-by-step instructions to construct a small radiation shield. (A) 15 cm and 10 cm squares are cut out of the large sheet of corrugated plastic. (B) The 15 cm sheets are then cut and scored, and the 10 cm sheets are scored to allow bending of the shield to the correct shape. (C) Holes are drilled on each sheet. (D) The sensor is tied to one of the 10 cm sheets. (E) The shield is assembled using several cable ties. (F) The final shield is ready for installation. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58273/58273fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<ol><li>Bowker, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250305710_Anurans_the_group_of_terrestrial_vertebrates_most_vulnerable_to_climate_change_a_case_study_with_acoustic_monitoring_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula">Anurans, the group of terrestrial vertebrates most vulnerable to climate change: A case study with acoustic monitoring in the Iberian peninsula.</a> Computational bioacoustics for assessing biodiversity. , 43(2007).</li>
<li>Walther, G. -R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Ecological+responses+to+recent+climate+change%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature%22%5BJournal%5D)">Ecological responses to recent climate change.</a> Nature. 416 (6879), 389-395 (2002).</li>
<li>Inouye, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Effects+of+climate+change+on+phenology%2C+frost+damage%2C+and+floral+abundance+of+montane+wildflowers%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Ecology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Effects of climate change on phenology, frost damage, and floral abundance of montane wildflowers.</a> Ecology. 89 (2), 353-362 (2008).</li>
<li>Lundquist, J. D., Huggett, B. <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008WR006979">Evergreen trees as inexpensive radiation shields for temperature sensors.</a> Water Resources Research. 44 (4), W00D04(2008).</li>
<li>De Jong, S. A. P., Slingerland, J. D., Van De Giesen, N. C. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.atmos-meas-tech.net/8/335/2015/">Fiber optic distributed temperature sensing for the determination of air temperature.</a> Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 8 (1), 335-339 (2015).</li>
<li>Holden, Z. A., Klene, A. E., Keefe, R. F., Moisen, G. G. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016819231300169X">Design and evaluation of an inexpensive radiation shield for monitoring surface air temperatures.</a> Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 180, 281-286 (2013).</li>
<li>Terando, A. J., Youngsteadt, E., Meineke, E. K., Prado, S. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Ad+hoc+instrumentation+methods+in+ecological+studies+produce+highly+biased+temperature+measurements%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Ecology+and+Evolution%22%5BJournal%5D)">Ad hoc instrumentation methods in ecological studies produce highly biased temperature measurements.</a> Ecology and Evolution. 7 (23), 9890-9904 (2017).</li>
<li>Richardson, S. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/1520-0426%281999%29016%3C1862%3AMEAWMR%3E2.0.CO%3B2">Minimizing errors associated with multiplate radiation shields.</a> Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 16 (11), 1862-1872 (1999).</li>
<li>Anderson, S. P., Baumgartner, M. F., Anderson, S. P., Baumgartner, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/1520-0426%281998%29015%3C0157%3ARHEINV%3E2.0.CO%3B2">Radiative Heating Errors in Naturally Ventilated Air Temperature Measurements Made from Buoys.</a> Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 15 (1), 157-173 (1998).</li>
<li>Nakamura, R., Mahrt, L. <a target="_blank" href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/JTECH1762.1">Air temperature measurement errors in naturally ventilated radiation shields.</a> Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 22 (7), 1046-1058 (2005).</li>
<li>Tarara, J. M., Hoheisel, G. -A. <a target="_blank" href="http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/42/6/1372.full">Low-cost shielding to minimize radiation errors of temperature sensors in the field.</a> HortScience. 42 (6), 1372-1379 (2007).</li>
<li>Huwald, H., Higgins, C. W., Boldi, M. -O., Bou-Zeid, E., Lehning, M., Parlange, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008WR007600">Albedo effect on radiative errors in air temperature measurements.</a> Water Resources Research. 45 (8), W08431 (2009).</li>
<li>Fuchs, M., Tanner, C. B. <a target="_blank" href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0450%281965%29004%3C0544%3ARSFATT%3E2.0.CO%3B2">Radiation shields for air temperature thermometers.</a> Journal of Applied Meteorology. 4 (4), 544-547 (1965).</li>
</ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The accuracy and repeatability of air temperature measurements depend on the use of an appropriate solar shield that protects the sensor from direct and reflected solar radiation. Here we describe the construction of such a shield that is more compact in size, less expensive, or faster to construct than similar, previously described devices6, without sacrificing accuracy. 94% of the recorded temperatures for the thermochrons outfitted with the smaller shield were within 1.0 &#176;C of the best per...

In light of anthropogenic global warming, there has been a growing interest in recording air temperature in a variety of settings to understand and predict ecological responses to climate change1,2,3. With the advent of small, low-cost environmental data recorders (also referred to as data loggers, thermochrons, or hygrochrons), it is now possible to deploy high-density networks of sensors to measure hyper localized temperature variation, increasing ecologists&#39; ability to more directly observe the ambient environmental conditions experienced by organisms and ecosystems under study. Compared to existing, well-calibrated and rigorously tested&#8212;but sparsely distributed&#8212;permanent weather stations, such networks present opportunities to assess climatic variation on ecologically relevant scales but may reduce accuracy or comparability among studies if inconsistently or inappropriately deployed.
Near-surface air temperature sensors typically require some type of solar radiation shielding to prevent direct heating of the sensor element, which would result in erroneously warm measurements. Common ways to limit sensor bias include: 1) using existing environmental features such as trees for shading4, 2) bias correction and sensor calibration5 that derived corrections based on the thermal properties of sensors, and 3) the use of manufactured or custom fabricated shields6,7. Many researchers choose to use custom fabricated shields because of the low-cost and easy deployment, and necessity in situations where environmental conditions do not provide natural shading. However, a review of the ecological literature indicated that the design of custom fabricated shields varies widely among studies, and individual designs are rarely tested for accuracy. Untested shields can be susceptible to poor choice of materials and design that cause additional heating of the air molecules immediately surrounding the sensor, direct absorption of solar radiation by the sensor itself, or both-leading to average biases of up to 3 &#176;C7. On the other hand, simple and cost-effective designs6,7 are quite effective at shielding sensors (biases of 1 &#176;C or less) and are comparable to commercially manufactured radiation shields.
Here, we provide a detailed methodology for constructing a previously evaluated custom fabricated radiation shield7 for use with inexpensive thermochron temperature sensors. The shield design is a modification of one previously described and tested in an open Ponderosa Pine forest setting6. In recent tests of several custom-fabricated shield designs, this montane-tested shield resulted in the lowest biases when paired with small thermochrons7, but we found it cumbersome and too conspicuous to deploy in the field. The design protocol proposed here reduces the dimensions of the radiation shield by 50%. Such a reduction in size has several benefits: 1) it is less conspicuous and therefore less susceptible to tampering, 2) it can be more feasibly used in a wider variety of ecological settings where space is limited (e.g., on smaller urban street trees), 3) it is more accurate than other published shielding methods that attempt to minimize shield size or construction costs7, and 4) it is less expensive than the original, larger design due to the reduced quantity of construction materials required. After describing the construction methods, we explore the effect of the size reduction on sensor accuracy relative to the original shield design using results from a field trial conducted under high downward solar radiation conditions.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Multipurpose Aluminum Foil Tape</td><td>Nashua</td><td>1087671</td><td>48 mm width</td></tr><tr><td>8&quot; cable ties</td><td>DTOL</td><td>GEN86371</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>Corrugated plastic sheet</td><td>Highway Traffic supply</td><td>hts18X24COROW</td><td>White sheet 18&quot;L x 24&quot;W, 5-pack</td></tr><tr><td>Standard utility knife</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>Standard Scissors</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td><td>NA</td></tr><tr><td>Heavy duty stapler</td><td>Swingline</td><td>552277715</td><td>NA</td></tr></tbody></table>

construction of a compact low-cost radiation shield for air-temperature sensors in ecological field studies

Low cost temperature sensors are increasingly used by ecologists to assess climatic variation and change on ecologically relevant scales. Although cost-effective, if not deployed with proper solar radiation shielding, the observations recorded from these sensors will be biased and inaccurate. Manufactured radiation shields are effective at minimizing this bias, but are expensive compared to the cost of these sensors. Here, we provide a detailed methodology for constructing a compact version of a previously described custom fabricated radiation shield, which is more accurate than other published shielding methods that attempt to minimize shield size or construction costs. The method requires very little material: corrugated plastic sheets, aluminum foil duct tape, and cable ties. One 15 cm and two 10 cm squares of corrugated plastic are used for each shield. After cutting, scoring, taping and stapling of the sheets, the 10 cm squares form the bottom two layers of the solar radiation shield, while the 15 cm square forms the top layer. The three sheets are held together with cable ties. This compact solar radiation shield can be suspended, or placed against any flat surface. Care must be taken to ensure that the shield is completely parallel to the ground to prevent direct solar radiation from reaching the sensor, possibly causing increased warm biases in sun-exposed sites in the morning and afternoon relative to the original, larger design. Even so, differences in recorded temperatures between the smaller, compact shield design and the original design were small (mean daytime bias = 0.06 &#176;C). Construction costs are less than half of the original shield design, and the new design results in a less conspicuous instrument that may be advantageous in many field ecology settings.

Representative results using thermochrons outfitted with the new, smaller shield design, the original larger shield design, and the thermochrons with no radiation shield are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. These data were recorded at a fully exposed rural location near Raleigh, NC (35.728&#176;N, 78.680&#176;W), and were affixed to a well-calibrated permanent weather station outfitted with a VAISALA platinum resi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Construction of a Compact Low-Cost Radiation Shield for Air-Temperature Sensors in Ecological Field Studies at JoVE.com

Construction of a Compact Low-Cost Radiation Shield for Air-Temperature Sensors in Ecological Field Studies

With the advent of small, low-cost environmental sensors, it is now possible to deploy high-density networks of sensors to measure hyper localized temperature variation. Here, we provide a detailed methodology for constructing a compact version of a previously described custom-fabricated radiation shield for use with inexpensive thermochrons.

Low cost temperature sensors are increasingly used by ecologists to assess climatic variation and change on ecologically relevant scales. Although ...

construction-compact-low-cost-radiation-shield-for-air-temperature

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

8.1K Views.  Southeast Climate Adaptation Science Center. With the advent of small, low-cost environmental sensors, it is now possible to deploy high-density networks of sensors to measure hyper localized temperature variation. Here, we provide a detailed methodology for constructing a compact version of a previously described custom-fabricated radiation shield for use with inexpensive thermochrons.

Video: Construction of a Compact Low-Cost Radiation Shield for Air-Temperature Sensors in Ecological Field Studies

Surface Renewal: An Advanced Micrometeorological Method for Measuring and Processing Field-Scale Energy Flux Density Data

Advanced micrometeorological methods have become increasingly important in soil, crop, and environmental sciences. For many scientists without formal training in atmospheric science, these techniques are relatively inaccessible. Surface renewal and other flux measurement methods require an understanding of boundary layer meteorology and extensive training in instrumentation and multiple data management programs. To improve accessibility of these techniques, we describe the underlying theory of surface renewal measurements, demonstrate how to set up a field station for surface renewal with eddy covariance calibration, and utilize our open-source turnkey data logger program to perform flux data acquisition and processing. The new turnkey program returns to the user a simple data table with the corrected fluxes and quality control parameters, and eliminates the need for researchers to shuttle between multiple processing programs to obtain the final flux data. An example of data generated from these measurements demonstrates how crop water use is measured with this technique. The output information is useful to growers for making irrigation decisions in a variety of agricultural ecosystems. These stations are currently deployed in numerous field experiments by researchers in our group and the California Department of Water Resources in the following crops: rice, wine and raisin grape vineyards, alfalfa, almond, walnut, peach, lemon, avocado, and corn.

Surface renewal is a micrometeorological method that is being used increasingly to determine energy fluxes, but its technical complexity makes it inaccessible to a broad audience. We describe the steps needed to set up and calibrate a surface renewal field station, to acquire and process data, and to correctly interpret results.

Advanced micrometeorological methods have become  increasingly important in soil, crop, and environmental sciences.  For many scientists without formal ...

Exploring the Effects of Atmospheric Forcings on Evaporation: Experimental Integration of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer and Shallow Subsurface

Evaporation is directly influenced by the interactions between the atmosphere, land surface and soil subsurface. This work aims to experimentally study evaporation under various surface boundary conditions to improve our current understanding and characterization of this multiphase phenomenon as well as to validate numerical heat and mass transfer theories that couple Navier-Stokes flow in the atmosphere and Darcian flow in the porous media. Experimental data were collected using a unique soil tank apparatus interfaced with a small climate controlled wind tunnel. The experimental apparatus was instrumented with a suite of state of the art sensor technologies for the continuous and autonomous collection of soil moisture, soil thermal properties, soil and air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed. This experimental apparatus can be used to generate data under well controlled boundary conditions, allowing for better control and gathering of accurate data at scales of interest not feasible in the field. Induced airflow at several distinct wind speeds over the soil surface resulted in unique behavior of heat and mass transfer during the different evaporative stages.

A protocol for the design and construction of a soil tank interfaced to a small climate controlled wind tunnel to study the effects of atmospheric forcings on evaporation is presented. Both the soil tank and wind tunnel are instrumented with sensor technologies for the continuous in situ measurement of environmental conditions.

Evaporation is directly influenced by the interactions between the atmosphere, land surface and soil subsurface. This work aims to experimentally study ...

Laser-heating and Radiance Spectrometry for the Study of Nuclear Materials in Conditions Simulating a Nuclear Power Plant Accident

Major and severe accidents have occurred three times in nuclear power plants (NPPs), at Three Mile Island (USA, 1979), Chernobyl (former USSR, 1986) and Fukushima (Japan, 2011). Research on the causes, dynamics, and consequences of these mishaps has been performed in a few laboratories worldwide in the last three decades. Common goals of such research activities are: the prevention of these kinds of accidents, both in existing and potential new nuclear power plants; the minimization of their eventual consequences; and ultimately, a full understanding of the real risks connected with NPPs. At the European Commission Joint Research Centre&#39;s Institute for Transuranium Elements, a laser-heating and fast radiance spectro-pyrometry facility is used for the laboratory simulation, on a small scale, of NPP core meltdown, the most common type of severe accident (SA) that can occur in a nuclear reactor as a consequence of a failure of the cooling system. This simulation tool permits fast and effective high-temperature measurements on real nuclear materials, such as plutonium and minor actinide-containing fission fuel samples. In this respect, and in its capability to produce large amount of data concerning materials under extreme conditions, the current experimental approach is certainly unique. For current and future concepts of NPP, example results are presented on the melting behavior of some different types of nuclear fuels: uranium-plutonium oxides, carbides, and nitrides. Results on the high-temperature interaction of oxide fuels with containment materials are also briefly shown.

We present experiments in which real nuclear fuel, cladding, and containment materials are laser heated to temperatures beyond 3,000 K while their behavior is studied by radiance spectroscopy and thermal analysis. These experiments simulate, on a laboratory scale, the formation of a lava-phase following a nuclear reactor core meltdown.

Major and severe accidents have occurred three times in nuclear power plants (NPPs), at Three Mile Island (USA, 1979), Chernobyl (former USSR, 1986) and ...

Chemistry

Construction of a Low-cost Mobile Incubator for Field and Laboratory Use

Incubators are essential for a range of culture-based microbial methods, such as membrane filtration followed by cultivation for assessing drinking water quality. However, commercially available incubators are often costly, difficult to transport, not flexible in terms of volume, and/or poorly adapted to local field conditions where access to electricity is unreliable. The purpose of this study was to develop an adaptable, low-cost and transportable incubator that can be constructed using readily available components. The electronic core of the incubator was first developed. These components were then tested under a range of ambient temperature conditions (3.5 &#176;C - 39 &#176;C) using three types of incubator shells (polystyrene foam box, hard cooler box, and cardboard box covered with a survival blanket). The electronic core showed comparable performance to a standard laboratory incubator in terms of the time required to reach the set temperature, inner temperature stability and spatial dispersion, power consumption, and microbial growth. The incubator set-ups were also effective at moderate and low ambient temperatures (between 3.5 &#176;C and 27 &#176;C), and at high temperatures (39 &#176;C) when the incubator set temperature was higher. This incubator prototype is low-cost (&lt; 300 USD) and adaptable to a variety of materials and volumes. Its demountable structure makes it easy to transport. It can be used in both established laboratories with grid power or in remote settings powered by solar energy or a car battery. It is particularly useful as an equipment option for field laboratories in areas with limited access to resources for water quality monitoring.

This paper describes a method for building an adaptable, low-cost and transportable incubator for microbial testing of drinking water. Our design is based on widely available materials and can operate under a range of field conditions, while still offering the advantages of higher-end laboratory-based models.

Incubators are essential for a range of culture-based microbial methods, such as membrane filtration followed by cultivation for assessing drinking water ...

BtM, a Low-cost Open-source Datalogger to Estimate the Water Content of Nonvascular Cryptogams

Communities of nonvascular cryptogams, such as mosses or lichens, are an important part of the Earth's biodiversity, contributing to the regulation of the carbon and nitrogen cycles in many ecosystems. Being poikilohydric organisms, they do not actively control their internal water content and need a humid environment to activate their metabolism. Therefore, studying water relationships of nonvascular cryptogams is crucial to understand both their diversity patterns and their functions in the ecosystems. We present the BtM datalogger, a low-cost open-source platform for the study of the water content of nonvascular cryptogams. The datalogger is designed to measure ambient temperature, humidity, and conductance from up to eight samples simultaneously. We provide a design for a printed circuit board (PCB), a detailed protocol to assemble the components, and the required source code. All this makes the assembly of the BtM datalogger accessible to any research group, even to those without previous specialized knowledge. Therefore, the design presented here has the potential to help popularize the use of this type of device among ecologists and field biologists.

We present a simple and cost-effective method to build an open-source datalogger that measures the conductance of nonvascular cryptogams together with the environmental temperature and humidity. We describe the hardware design of the datalogger and provide step-by-step assembly instructions, the list of required open-source logging software, the code to run the datalogger, and a calibration protocol.

Communities of nonvascular cryptogams, such as mosses or lichens, are an important part of the Earth's biodiversity, contributing to the regulation of the ...

Measurements of CO2 Fluxes at Non-Ideal Eddy Covariance Sites

This protocol is an example of utilizing the eddy covariance (EC) technique to investigate spatially and temporally averaged net CO2 fluxes (net ecosystem production, NEP), in non-typical ecosystems, on a currently reforested windthrow area in Poland. After a tornado event, a relatively narrow &#8220;corridor&#8221; was created within surviving forest stands, which complicates such kind of experiments. The application of other measuring techniques, such as the chamber method, is even more difficult under these circumstances, because especially at the beginning, fallen trees and in general great heterogeneity of the site provide a challenging platform to perform flux measurements and then to properly upscale obtained results. In comparison with standard EC measurements carried out in untouched forests, the case of windthrow areas requires special consideration when it comes to the site location and data analysis in order to ensure their representativeness. Therefore, here we present a protocol of real-time, continuous CO2 flux measurements at a dynamically changing, non-ideal EC site, which includes (1) site location and instrumentation setup, (2) flux computation, (3) rigorous data filtering and quality control, and (4) gap filling and net fluxes partitioning into CO2 respiration and absorption. The main advantage of the described methodology is that it provides a detailed description of the experimental setup and measurement performance from scratch, which can be applied to other spatially limited ecosystems. It can also be viewed as a list of recommendations on how to deal with unconventional site operation, providing a description for non-specialists. Obtained quality-checked, gap filled, half-hour values of net CO2, as well as absorption and respiration fluxes, can be finally aggregated into daily, monthly, seasonal or annual totals.

Measurements of CO2 Fluxes at Non-Ideal Eddy Covariance Sites

The presented protocol uses the eddy covariance method at non-typical locations, applicable to all types of short-canopy ecosystems with limited area, on a currently reforested windthrow site in Poland. Details of measuring site setup rules, flux calculations and quality control, and final result analysis, are described.

This protocol is an example of utilizing the eddy covariance (EC) technique to investigate spatially and temporally averaged net CO2 fluxes (net ecosystem ...

Manufacturing Simple and Inexpensive Soil Surface Temperature and Gravimetric Water Content Sensors

Quantifying temperature and moisture at the soil surface is essential for understanding how soil surface biota respond to changes in the environment. However, at the soil surface these variables are highly dynamic and standard sensors do not explicitly measure temperature or moisture in the upper few millimeters of the soil profile. This paper describes methods for manufacturing simple, inexpensive sensors that simultaneously measure the temperature and moisture of the upper 5 mm of the soil surface. In addition to sensor construction, steps for quality control, as well as for calibration for various substrates, are explained. The sensors incorporate a Type E thermocouple to measure temperature and assess soil moisture by measuring the resistance between two gold-plated metal probes at the end of the sensor at a depth of 5 mm. The methods presented here can be altered to customize probes for different depths or substrates. These sensors have been effective in a variety of environments and have endured months of heavy rains in tropical forests as well as intense solar radiation in deserts of the southwestern U.S. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of these sensors for evaluating warming, drying, and freezing of the soil surface in a global change experiment.

Accurately measuring temperature and water content of the upper 5 mm of the soil surface can improve our understanding of environmental controls on biological, chemical, and physical processes. Here we describe a protocol for manufacturing, calibrating, and conducting measurements with soil surface temperature and moisture sensors.

Quantifying temperature and moisture at the soil surface is essential for understanding how soil surface biota respond to changes in the environment. ...

Additive Manufacturing-Enabled Low-Cost Particle Detector

As particles with a size of 1 &#181;m or smaller pose a severe health risk to the human body, the detection and regulation of particle emissions are of great importance. A large share of particulate emissions are emitted by the transport sector. Most of the commercially available particle detectors are bulky, very expensive, and need additional equipment. This paper presents a protocol to build and test a standalone particle detector that is small and cost-efficient. 
The focus of this paper lies in the description of the detailed construction manual with video and the sensor evaluation procedure. The computer-aided design model of the sensor is included in the supplemental material. The manual explains all the construction steps, from 3D printing to the fully operational sensor. The sensor can detect charged particles and is therefore suitable for a wide range of applications. A possible field of application would be soot detection from power plants, wildfires, industries, and automobiles.

Here, we present a protocol on how to build and test a simple but efficient low-cost particle detector.

As particles with a size of 1 &#181;m or smaller pose a severe health risk to the human body, the detection and regulation of particle emissions are of ...

Engineering

A Simple and Inexpensive Method for Determining Cold Sensitivity and Adaptation in Mice

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life. The cold plantar assay allows the objective and inexpensive assessment of cold sensitivity in mice, and can quantify both analgesia and hypersensitivity. Mice are acclimated on a glass plate, and a compressed dry ice pellet is held against the glass surface underneath the hindpaw. The latency to withdrawal from the cooling glass is used as a measure of cold sensitivity.
Cold sensation is also important for survival in regions with seasonal temperature shifts, and in order to maintain sensitivity animals must be able to adjust their thermal response thresholds to match the ambient temperature. The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) also allows the study of adaptation to changes in ambient temperature by testing the cold sensitivity of mice at temperatures ranging from 30 &#176;C to 5 &#176;C. Mice are acclimated as described above, but the glass plate is cooled to the desired starting temperature using aluminum boxes (or aluminum foil packets) filled with hot water, wet ice, or dry ice. The temperature of the plate is measured at the center using a filament T-type thermocouple probe. Once the plate has reached the desired starting temperature, the animals are tested as described above.
This assay allows testing of mice at temperatures ranging from innocuous to noxious. The CPA yields unambiguous and consistent behavioral responses in uninjured mice and can be used to quantify both hypersensitivity and analgesia. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) measures cold responsiveness between 30 &#176;C and 5 &#176;C, and can also measure cold adaptation. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life.  The cold ...

Neuroscience

Field-Based Thermal Physiology Assay: Cold Shock Recovery under Ambient Conditions

Ecological physiology, particularly of ectotherms, is increasingly important in this changing world as it uses measures of species and environmental traits to explore the interactions between organisms and their surroundings to better understand their survival and fitness. Traditional thermal assays are costly in terms of time, money, and equipment and are therefore often limited to small sample sizes and few species. Presented here is a novel protocol that generates detailed data on individual behavior and physiology of large, volant, terrestrial insects, using the example of butterflies. This paper describes the methods of a cold shock recovery assay that can be performed in the field under ambient environmental conditions and does not require costly laboratory equipment. This method has been used to understand the response and recovery strategy to cold shock of tropical butterflies, generating individual level data across entire butterfly communities. These methods can be employed in both remote field settings and classrooms and can be used to generate ecologically relevant physiological data and as a teaching tool.

Here, a low-cost, accessible protocol is described to evaluate cold shock recovery of butterflies under ambient environmental conditions.

Ecological physiology, particularly of ectotherms, is increasingly important in this changing world as it uses measures of species and environmental ...