Name: opsonophagocytic killing assay to assess immunological responses against bacterial pathogens
Uploaded: 2019-04-05T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens at JoVE.com

We thank Dr. Moon Nahm (University of Alabama Birmingham) for his invaluable assistance in establishing OPKA assays in our laboratory. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant 1R01AI123383-01A1 to FYA.

1. Culture, Differentiation, and Validation of HL-60 Cells

<ol>
	<li>Prepare HL-60 cell culture media composed of 500 mL RPMI with L-glutamine and 50 mL heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum. Do not add antibiotics as this may affect the differentiation of the HL-60 cells.</li>
	<li>For propagation/maintenance of HL-60 cells, culture 5 x 106 cells in 10 mL of HL-60 cell culture media in 75 cm2 vented flasks at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2. Passage cells every 3&#8722;4 days to maintain o...

<ol>
	<li>Romero-Steiner, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Standardization+of+an+opsonophagocytic+assay+for+the+measurement+of+functional+antibody+activity+against+Streptococcus+pneumoniae+using+differentiated+HL-60+cells.">Standardization of an opsonophagocytic assay for the measurement of functional antibody activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae using differentiated HL-60 cells.</a> Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 4 (4), 415-422 (1997).</li><li>Nanra, J. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Capsular+polysaccharides+are+an+important+immune+evasion+mechanism+for+Staphylococcus+aureus.">Capsular polysaccharides are an important immune evasion mechanism for Staphylococcus aureus.</a> Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics. 9 (3), 480-487 (2013).</li><li>Ishibashi, K., Yamaguchi, O., Shiraiwa, Y., Ogihara, M., Shigeta, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combination+therapy+of+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+pyelonephritis+in+neutropenic+mice+with+human+antilipopolysaccharide+monoclonal+antibody+and+cefsulodin.">Combination therapy of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pyelonephritis in neutropenic mice with human antilipopolysaccharide monoclonal antibody and cefsulodin.</a> Journal of Urology. 155 (6), 2094-2097 (1996).</li><li>Middleton, D. R., Paschall, A. V., Duke, J. A., Avci, F. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymatic+Hydrolysis+of+Pneumococcal+Capsular+Polysaccharide+Renders+the+Bacterium+Vulnerable+to+Host+Defense.">Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Pneumococcal Capsular Polysaccharide Renders the Bacterium Vulnerable to Host Defense.</a> Infection and Immunity. , (2018).</li><li>Baker, C. J., Noya, F. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potential+use+of+intravenous+immune+globulin+for+group+B+streptococcal+infection.">Potential use of intravenous immune globulin for group B streptococcal infection.</a> Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 12, 476-482 (1990).</li><li>Tian, H., Weber, S., Thorkildson, P., Kozel, T. R., Pirofski, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficacy+of+opsonic+and+nonopsonic+serotype+3+pneumococcal+capsular+polysaccharide-specific+monoclonal+antibodies+against+intranasal+challenge+with+Streptococcus+pneumoniae+in+mice.">Efficacy of opsonic and nonopsonic serotype 3 pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide-specific monoclonal antibodies against intranasal challenge with Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice.</a> Infection and Immunity. 77 (4), 1502-1513 (2009).</li><li>Parameswarappa, S. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Semi-synthetic+Oligosaccharide+Conjugate+Vaccine+Candidate+Confers+Protection+against+Streptococcus+pneumoniae+Serotype+3+Infection.">A Semi-synthetic Oligosaccharide Conjugate Vaccine Candidate Confers Protection against Streptococcus pneumoniae Serotype 3 Infection.</a> Cell Chemical Biology. 23 (11), 1407-1416 (2016).</li><li>Jackson, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Randomized+clinical+trial+of+a+single+versus+a+double+dose+of+13-valent+pneumococcal+conjugate+vaccine+in+adults+55+through+74+years+of+age+previously+vaccinated+with+23-valent+pneumococcal+polysaccharide+vaccine.">Randomized clinical trial of a single versus a double dose of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in adults 55 through 74 years of age previously vaccinated with 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine.</a> Vaccine. 36 (5), 606-614 (2018).</li><li>Cywes-Bentley, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antibody+to+a+conserved+antigenic+target+is+protective+against+diverse+prokaryotic+and+eukaryotic+pathogens.">Antibody to a conserved antigenic target is protective against diverse prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathogens.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 110 (24), 2209-2218 (2013).</li><li>Fleck, R. A., Romero-Steiner, S., Nahm, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+HL-60+cell+line+to+measure+opsonic+capacity+of+pneumococcal+antibodies.">Use of HL-60 cell line to measure opsonic capacity of pneumococcal antibodies.</a> Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 12 (1), 19-27 (2005).</li><li>Collins, S. J., Ruscetti, F. W., Gallagher, R. E., Gallo, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Terminal+differentiation+of+human+promyelocytic+leukemia+cells+induced+by+dimethyl+sulfoxide+and+other+polar+compounds.">Terminal differentiation of human promyelocytic leukemia cells induced by dimethyl sulfoxide and other polar compounds.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 75 (5), 2458-2462 (1978).</li><li>Melnick, N., Rajam, G., Carlone, G. M., Sampson, J. S., Ades, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+a+novel+therapeutic+approach+to+treating+severe+pneumococcal+infection+using+a+mouse+model.">Evaluation of a novel therapeutic approach to treating severe pneumococcal infection using a mouse model.</a> Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 16 (6), 806-810 (2009).</li><li>Dwyer, M., Gadjeva, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Opsonophagocytic+assay.">Opsonophagocytic assay.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1100, 373-379 (2014).</li><li>Burton, R. L., Nahm, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+fourfold+multiplexed+opsonophagocytosis+assay+for+pneumococcal+antibodies+against+additional+serotypes+and+discovery+of+serological+subtypes+in+Streptococcus+pneumoniae+serotype+20.">Development of a fourfold multiplexed opsonophagocytosis assay for pneumococcal antibodies against additional serotypes and discovery of serological subtypes in Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 20.</a> Clinical and Vaccine Immunololgy. 19 (6), 835-841 (2012).</li><li>Clarke, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Low-cost,+high-throughput,+automated+counting+of+bacterial+colonies.">Low-cost, high-throughput, automated counting of bacterial colonies.</a> Cytometry Part A. 77 (8), 790-797 (2010).</li><li>Aanei, C. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Database-guided+Flow-cytometry+for+Evaluation+of+Bone+Marrow+Myeloid+Cell+Maturation.">Database-guided Flow-cytometry for Evaluation of Bone Marrow Myeloid Cell Maturation.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (141), e57867 (2018).</li><li>Hirz, T., Dumontet, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+Isolation+and+Analysis+to+Determine+their+Role+in+Lymphoma+Cell+Sensitivity+to+Therapeutic+Agents.">Neutrophil Isolation and Analysis to Determine their Role in Lymphoma Cell Sensitivity to Therapeutic Agents.</a> Journal of Visulaized Experiments. (109), e53846 (2016).</li><li>Rieger, A. M., Nelson, K. L., Konowalchuk, J. D., Barreda, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modified+annexin+V/propidium+iodide+apoptosis+assay+for+accurate+assessment+of+cell+death.">Modified annexin V/propidium iodide apoptosis assay for accurate assessment of cell death.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (50), 2597 (2011).</li><li>Blair, O. C., Carbone, R., Sartorelli, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differentiation+of+HL-60+promyelocytic+leukemia+cells:+simultaneous+determination+of+phagocytic+activity+and+cell+cycle+distribution+by+flow+cytometry.">Differentiation of HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cells: simultaneous determination of phagocytic activity and cell cycle distribution by flow cytometry.</a> Cytometry. 7 (2), 171-177 (1986).</li><li>Middleton, D. 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OPKAs serve essential roles in assessing antibody mediated immune responses induced by vaccinations6,8. The main significance of this simplified OPKA is the adaptability in the conditions to be tested (i.e., antibodies, enzyme treatments, etc.). In this sense, while this assay can be used to test the contribution of opsonins (i.e., antibodies) in phagocytosis, it can also be used to assess ways to overcome virulence factors (i.e., capsular polysaccharides) that n...

The opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is a critical tool for linking alterations in bacterial structure or function to subsequent changes in immune response and function. As such, it is frequently used as a complementary assay to determine immune-based efficacy of antibody treatments, vaccine candidates, enzyme optimization, etc. While in vivo assays are necessary to determine effective clearance or protection in a bacterial infection model, the OPKA can be used to assess immune contribution to bacterial cell death at the most basic components: bacteria, immune cells, and experimental treatments. Previous studies have shown that OPKAs can be modified and used for a variety of bacteria and serotypes, including Streptococcus pneumoniae1, Staphylococcus aureus2, Pseudomonas aeruginosa3. Furthermore, these optimized assays can be used to assess different experimental treatments, including the ability of an enzyme to make the bacterium more accessible to complement-mediated immune cells4 and antibody treatments to improve opsonization5. Classically, OPKA assay has been successfully used in basic and clinical research settings as a powerful indicator for protection induced by pathogen-specific antibodies6,7,8,9.
Different types of immune cells may be used for assessment of opsonophagocytic killing. One commonly used phagocytic population is the HL-60 human leukemic cell line. This cell line can be kept as inactivated promyelocytes in culture; however, they can be differentiated into various activated states via different drug treatments10,11. Treatment of HL60 with N,N-dimethylformamide differentiates the cell line into activated neutrophils with strong phagocytic activity11. While HL-60 cells have been optimized and are frequently used for these phagocytosis assays10, other primary polymorphonuclear leukocytes can be used as the immune arm of the experiment12.
Additionally, these assays can be simplified13 or multiplexed14 to look at multiple antibiotic-resistant strains of the bacteria to be tested. The multiplexed method has been made more feasible through the development of software that can efficiently count bacterial colony forming units (CFUs) per spot on an agar plate15. Here, we describe a streamlined method using one bacterial strain, HL-60 cells, baby rabbit complement, and blood agar plates. With this method, multiple treatments can be assessed quickly to address specific research questions on how the innate immune response to bacterial infection can be modulated.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:636px;" width="637">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">Annexin V (APC conjugated)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BioLegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">640919</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:204px;">anti-CD35, human (PE conjugated)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BioLegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">333405</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:204px;">anti-CD71, human (PE conjugated)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BioLegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">334105</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:204px;">bacterial strain to be used (ie, Streptococcus pneumoniae, WU2)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Bacterial Respiratory Reference Laboratory (Dr. Moon Nahm)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">blood agar plates</td>
			<td>Hardy Diagnostic</td>
			<td>A10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">Fetal Clone serum</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SH30080.03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G9012-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">HL-60 cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-240</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:204px;">IgG Isotype Control (PE conjugated)</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BioLegend</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">400907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:204px;">N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF)</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>UN2265</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">propidium iodide</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P4864</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:204px;">RPMI media with L-glutamine</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>10-040-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

opsonophagocytic killing assay to assess immunological responses against bacterial pathogens

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental procedure in which phagocytic cells are co-cultured with bacterial units. The immune cells will phagocytose and kill the bacterial cultures in a complement-dependent manner. The efficiency of the immune-mediated cell killing is dependent on a number of factors and can be used to determine how different bacterial cultures compare with regard to resistance to cell death. In this way, the efficacy of potential immune-based therapeutics can be assessed against specific bacterial strains and/or serotypes. In this protocol, we describe a simplified OPKA that utilizes basic culture conditions and cell counting to determine bacterial cell viability after co-culture with treatment conditions and HL-60 immune cells. This method has been successfully utilized with a number of different pneumococcal serotypes, capsular and acapsular strains, and other bacterial species. The advantages of this OPKA protocol are its simplicity, versatility (as this assay is not limited to antibody treatments as opsonins), and minimization of time and reagents to assess basic experimental groups.

Validation of HL-60 differentiation should be performed before starting the OPKA. This can be accomplished using flow cytometry to determine the extracellular expression of CD11b, CD35, CD71, and annexin V (Figure 1). Propidium iodide can also be used as a viability marker. After being treated with DMF for 3 days, expression of CD35 should be increased (&#8805;55% of all cells) and expression of CD71 should be decreased (&#8804;20% of all cells). The percentage of annexin V+ and propidium io...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens at JoVE.com

Opsonophagocytic Killing Assay to Assess Immunological Responses Against Bacterial Pathogens

This opsonophagocytic killing assay is used to compare the ability of phagocytic immune cells to respond to and kill bacteria based on different treatments and/or conditions. Classically, this assay serves as the gold&#160;standard for assessing effector functions of antibodies raised against a bacterium as opsonin.

A key aspect of the immune response to bacterial colonization of the host is phagocytosis. An opsonophagocytic killing assay (OPKA) is an experimental ...

This assay links modulation of bacterial structure and function to immune cell based antibacterial activity. As such, a key immunotherapeutic of a potential treatment can be assessed in determining the likelihood of improved bacterial clearance. Opsonophagocytic killing assay traditionally serves as the gold standard for assessing effective functions of antibodies raised against the bacterium as obsonant.This protocol offers simplicity and versatility over existing high throughput standardized assays. In this protocol, we investigate the effects of a drug treatment on streptococcus pneumonia and how these effects translate to improved phagocytosis of the bacterium. Here, we apply the OPKA to streptococcus pneumonia cells.However this protocol can be adopted to assess phagocytic killing of other pathogens by immune cells. Dedicate time to optimize the bacterial stocks and ensure the final CFUs to be counted fall within the optimum range. We strongly recommend using flow cytometry to ensure HL60 cells are viable and active and trying different culture conditions to ensure functionally active cells.Visual demonstration will give a better understanding of how the sample should be plated and how to achieve countable samples. To begin, prepare HL60 cell culture media composed of 500 milliliters RPMI supplemented with L-glutamine and 15 milliliters heat inactivated fetal bovine serum. For propagation and maintenance of HL60 cells, culture five million cells in 10 milliliters of HL60 cell culture media in 75 square centimeter vented flasks at 37 degrees celsius and five percent carbon dioxide.To generate working stocks of HL60 cells, add approximately one million cells per milliliter in HL60 culture media supplemented with 10%dimethyl sulfoxide into one milliliter cryogenic tubes. To differentiate HL60 cells, culture 1.5 times 10 to the seven cells in 15 milliliters of HL60 cell culture media supplemented with 0.6%DMF in sterile filter capped 75 square centimeter flasks at 37 degrees celsius and 5%carbon dioxide for three days prior to OPKA. To prepare the bacterial stock samples, grow the WU2 bacterial strain in an appropriate broth for approximately two to four hours at 37 degrees celsius.Next, pellet the bacteria by centrifugation at six thousand times G for two minutes and resuspend the cells in 10 to 30 milliliters of 15%glycerol in the appropriate broth. Aliquot the bacteria culture into sterile 1.5 milliliter centrifuge tubes and store at 80 degrees celsius. Next, thaw out one vial of bacterial stock in a 37 degree celsius water bath.Pellet the bacterial cells and resuspend in 500 microliters of OBB under sterile conditions. Plate dilutions of the untreated bacterial stock on blood agar plates and culture the plates overnight at 30 degrees celsius. After the incubation step, count the colonies for each dilution of untreated bacterial stock co-cultured with HL60 cells.Record which dilution of bacteria yields the optimal number of countable colonies for future OPKAs with this bacterial stock. Thaw one tube of bacterial stock. Pellet bacteria at six thousand times G for two minutes and resuspend the cell pellet in OBB at the optimal dilution obtained in the previous step.Pipette 10 microliters of the resuspended bacterial dilution per well in a round bottom 96 well cell culture plate. Then, add 20 microliters of an appropriate antibody or a drug treatment to each experimental well in duplicate. For control wells, use 1XPBS or OBB depending on the buffer used for the treatment wells.Shake the sample plate at approximately 90 rpm at room temperature for one hour. To harvest the HL60 differentiated cells that are treated with DMF three days prior, pellet the cells at 500 times G for three minutes. Discard the supernatant and wash the pellet with at least 10 milliliters of 1XPBS.Pellet the washed cells at 500 times G for three minutes. Discard the supernatant and resuspend the cells in OBB. Add sterile undiluted baby rabbit serum at a one to five final volume.After a one hour bacterial culture, divide each sample into duplicate wells for two groups. Next, add 50 microliters of the HL60 complement mixture to each experimental set of wells and 50 microliters of OBB to the wells of bacteria only. Shake the 96 well plate at 37 degrees celsius for one hour.To plate samples, dilute each well with OBB at a one to five final volume so that each sample has a volume of at least 50 microliters. Next, pipette 50 microliters of each sample directly onto a designated area of a bacterial culture plate, ensuring adequate spacing between samples. Cover and allow samples to dry for approximately 15 minutes at room temperature.Invert the plates and culture overnight at 30 degrees celsius. Alternatively, culture plates in anaerobic jars to test whether anoxic conditions affect the bacterial growth or to control for morphology. After overnight culture, count the colonies in each designated sample area and proceed to analyzing data by comparing the number of live cells in each set to the corresponding controls.The most difficult aspects of establishing this technique for the first time will likely be optimizing the starting CFUs of the bacterial stock, as well as ensuring the HL60 cells are effectively differentiated. Before starting the OPKA, HL60 differentiation was validated using flow cytometry with propidium iodide as a viability marker. After being treated with DMF for three days, expression of CD35 was increased and expression of CD71 was decreased.The average percentages of bacterial CFUs in the HL60 treated groups compared to the corresponding non-HL60 treated groups was used to compare the bacterial cell survival of different treatments. Results showed that with an effective treatment, the numbers of colonies were different between HL60 co-culture and no HL60 cells, indicative of more efficient phagocytosis. Results showed that when the bacterial dilution was not optimized or the colony growth was not carefully observed after plating, overgrowth of the colonies could prevent accurate counting of colonies.The most important thing to remember when attempting this procedure is to monitor the bacterial incubation carefully so as to avoid overgrowth of the CFUs. In vivo assays can be used to asses effective bacterial clearance within a host. These assays can be used to confirm the immune efficacy observed with the OPKA are translatable to human or animal models.The opsonophagocytic killing assay has been used to great effect in previous significant research studies to link antibacterial therapies to phagostic immune responses. Working with bacterial pathogens can be hazardous. Please wear protective personal equipment at all times during this assay.

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