Name: long-range channelrhodopsin-assisted circuit mapping of inferior colliculus neurons with blue and red-shifted channelrhodopsins
Uploaded: 2020-02-07T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins at JoVE.com

这项工作得到了德国福森斯格明舍夫特研究奖学金（GO 3060/1-1，项目号401540516，DG）和国家卫生研究院资助R56 DC016880（MTR）的支持。

获得当地机构动物护理和使用委员会（IACUC）的批准，并遵守NIH关于实验室动物护理和使用的指导方针。本议定书中的所有程序均经密歇根大学IACUC批准，符合NIH关于护理和使用实验室动物的准则。
1. 手术准备
<ol><li>在无菌条件下进行手术。高压灭菌/消毒所有手术工具和材料在手术前。为手术穿手术服和口罩。</li>
	<li>消毒手术区域（用70%乙醇喷洒和擦拭），并放置无菌毛?...

<ol>
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R., Schneider-Warme, F., Schmitz, D., Hegemann, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+Tools+for+Subcellular+Applications+in+Neuroscience.">Optogenetic Tools for Subcellular Applications in Neuroscience.</a> Neuron. 96, 572-603 (2017).</li><li>Maimon, B. E., Sparks, K., Srinivasan, S., Zorzos, A. N., Herr, H. 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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acoustic+chiasm:+efferent+projections+of+the+lateral+superior+olive.">Acoustic chiasm: efferent projections of the lateral superior olive.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 3, 1521-1537 (1983).</li><li>Adams, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ascending+projections+to+the+inferior+colliculus.">Ascending projections to the inferior colliculus.</a> Journal of Comparative Neurology. 183, (1979).</li><li>Winer, J. A., Larue, D. T., Diehl, J. J., Hefti, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+cortical+projections+to+the+cat+inferior+colliculus.">Auditory cortical projections to the cat inferior colliculus.</a> Journal of Comparative Neurology. 400, 147-174 (1998).</li><li>Salda&#241;a, E., Mercha&#324;, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intrinsic+and+commissural+connections+of+the+rat+inferior+colliculus.">Intrinsic and commissural connections of the rat inferior colliculus.</a> Journal of Comparative Neurology. 319, 417-437 (1992).</li><li>Sivaramakrishnan, S., Sanchez, J. T., Grimsley, C. 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我们发现，CRACM 是一种强大的技术，用于识别和描述小鼠 IC 中神经元的长距离突触输入。按照此处详述的协议，我们实现了 DCN 和 IC 神经元的强健转染，以及将 Chronos 和 ChrimsonR 可靠通过同步体贩运到 IC 中的突触终端。此外，我们证明，该技术能够测量和分析午睡事件，包括PSP振幅，半宽，衰变时间和受体药理学。我们的经验表明，这种方法可以很容易地适应在整个听觉脑干和超越进行功能电路...

突触连接对神经回路功能至关重要，但神经回路中突触的精确拓扑和生理学往往难以进行实验探讨。这是因为电刺激，传统的细胞电生理学工具，不分青红皂白地激活刺激部位附近的斧子，在大多数大脑区域，来自不同来源的斧子（局部、升序和/或降）交织。然而，通过使用通道多普辛辅助电路映射（CRACM）1，2，这种限制现在可以克服3。通道多普辛（ChR2）是一种光激活，阳离子选择性离子通道最初发现在绿色藻原体雷哈德蒂。ChR2可通过波长约为450-490nm的蓝光激活，通过阳离子流入使细胞去极化。ChR2首先由纳格尔及其同事4用异种卵母细胞描述和表达。不久之后，Boyden和他的同事5在哺乳动物神经元中表达ChR2，并表明他们可以使用光脉冲可靠地控制在毫秒时间尺度上的尖峰，在用蓝光激活ChR2后诱导行动电位+10毫秒。最近发现了具有更快动力学的光遗传学通道（例如，Chronos6）。
CRACM实验的基本方法是转染一个假定的预突触神经元群体，该病毒带有一种重组腺相关病毒（rAAV），该病毒携带通道性腺蛋白的遗传信息。具有rAAV的神经元转染导致编码通道性腺蛋白的表达。通常，通道性多普司子被标记有荧光蛋白，如GFP（绿色荧光蛋白）或tdTomato（红色荧光蛋白），以便通过荧光成像可以很容易地确认目标区域神经元的转染。由于rAAV是非致病性的，具有低炎症潜力和持久的基因表达7，8，它们已成为向神经元提供通道性多普辛的标准技术。如果转染假定的神经元预突触群后，通过光闪烁激活通道性多普辛在目标神经元中引起突触电位或电流，这是从转染细胞核到记录细胞的斧突连接的证据。由于脑切片实验中被切断的斧突可以通过通道性腺素激活来释放神经递质，因此，位于急性切片外部但向脑后脑区域发送斧子的原子核可以通过CRACM识别。该技术的作用是，可以直接研究已识别的远距离突触输入的连接性和生理学。
除了被蓝光兴奋的通道性多普辛外，调查人员最近还发现了几种红移导引性多普辛9，10，包括Chrimson及其更快的模拟ChrimsonR，两者都因660nm6的红光而兴奋。红移蛋白酶是感兴趣的，因为红光穿透组织比蓝光更好，红光可能具有比蓝光10，11，12更低的细胞毒性。红移通道性多普辛也开辟了双色CRACM实验的可能性，其中来自同一神经元不同核的斧突的收敛可以在一个实验6，13，14中测试。然而，目前的红移蛋白经常表现出不必要的交叉激活与蓝光15，16，17，使两个颜色实验困难。此外，一些报告指出，ChrimsonR受到有限的斧突贩运，这使得使用ChrimsonR进行CRACM实验16、17具有挑战性。
几乎所有来自下耳脑干核的上升投影都收敛在下级结体（IC），这是中央听觉通路的中脑中心。这包括从耳蜗核（CN）18，19，大多数优越的橄榄复合物（SOC）20，和背（DNLL）和腹腔（VNLL）核的侧耳核21的投影。此外，听觉皮层的大降投影在IC18、19、20、21、22中终止，IC神经元本身在IC23的局部和反向叶内广泛突触。来自许多来源的斧子的混杂使得使用电刺激24探测IC电路变得困难。因此，尽管IC中的神经元执行对声音定位和语音和其他通信声音识别至关重要的计算，IC中神经回路的组织在很大程度上还是未知的。我们最近确定VIP神经元是IC27中第一个分子可识别的神经元类别。VIP神经元是谷氨酸硬质质质质的硬质质神经元，投射到几个远程目标，包括听觉丘脑和高级胶质。我们现在能够确定VIP神经元的本地和远距离输入的来源和功能，并确定这些电路连接如何促进声音处理。
此处介绍的协议是专为研究小鼠 IC 中的 VIP 神经元的突触输入而定制的，特别是来自反向 IC 和 DCN 的突触输入（图 1）。该协议可以很容易地适应不同的输入源，不同的神经元类型或完全不同的大脑区域。我们还表明，ChrimsonR 是一种有效的红移通道，用于听觉脑干中的长距离电路映射。然而，我们证明，ChrimsonR被蓝光强激活，即使在低强度下，因此，在双色CRACM实验中，ChrimsonR与Chronos结合，必须使用谨慎的控制来防止ChrimsonR的交叉激活。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>AAV1.Syn.ChrimsonR-tdTomato.WPRE.bGH</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>59171-AAV1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AAV1.Syn.Chronos-GFP.WPRE.bGH</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>59170-AAV1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ai14 reporter mice (B6.Cg-Gt(ROSA)26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato)Hze/J)</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>stock #007914</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amber (590nm) LUXEON Rebel LED</td>
			<td>Luxeon Star LEDs</td>
			<td>SP-01-A8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blue (470nm) LUXEON Rebel LED</td>
			<td>Luxeon Star LEDs</td>
			<td>SP-01-B4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carproject (carprofen)</td>
			<td>Henry Schein Animal Health</td>
			<td>59149</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Drummond glas capillaries</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-000-203-G/X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Drummond Nanoject 3</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-300-207</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode beveler</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>FG-BV10-D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethilon 6-0 (0.8 metric) nylon sutures</td>
			<td>Ethicon</td>
			<td>local pharmacy</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fixed stage microscope</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gas anesthesia head holder</td>
			<td>David Kopf Instruments</td>
			<td>933-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>General surgery tools</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Golden A5 pet clipper</td>
			<td>Oster</td>
			<td>078005-010-003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heating pad</td>
			<td>Custom build</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hooded induction chamber w/ vacuum system</td>
			<td>Patterson Scientific</td>
			<td>78917760</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot bead sterilizer Steri 250</td>
			<td>Inotech</td>
			<td>IS-250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iodine solution 10%</td>
			<td>MedChoice</td>
			<td>local pharmacy</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane vaporizer</td>
			<td>Patterson Scientific</td>
			<td>07-8703592</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lidocain topical jelly 2%</td>
			<td>Akorn</td>
			<td>local pharmacy</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro motor drill 1050</td>
			<td>Henry Schein Animal Health</td>
			<td>7094351</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro motor drill bits 0.5 mm</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>19007-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motorized Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>MP-285/R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic ointment Artificial Tears</td>
			<td>Akorn</td>
			<td>local pharmacy</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>P-1000 electrode puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Patch clamp amplifier incl data acquisition software</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Portable anethesia machine</td>
			<td>Patterson Scientific</td>
			<td>07-8914724</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small animal steroetaxic frame</td>
			<td>David Kopf Instruments</td>
			<td>930-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Standard chemicals</td>
			<td>local vendors</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>standard imaging solutions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile towel drapes</td>
			<td>Dynarex</td>
			<td>4410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical marker</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>18000-30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature controller</td>
			<td>Custom build</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibratome</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VIP-IRES-Cre mice (Viptm1(cre)Zjh/J)</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>stock #010908</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

long-range channelrhodopsin-assisted circuit mapping of inferior colliculus neurons with blue and red-shifted channelrhodopsins

在研究神经回路时，体外贴片夹方法的标准限制是，来自多个源的斧头经常混合在一起，因此很难通过电刺激从单个源分离输入。然而，通过使用通道多普辛辅助电路映射（CRACM），现在可以克服这种限制。在这里，我们报告一种使用CRACM来绘制从低听觉脑干核和小分输入到低序曲（IC）中一类已识别的神经元的提升输入，即听觉系统的中脑核。在IC中，局部、小工、升和降的斧子紧密地交织在一起，因此与电刺激无法区分。通过注入病毒结构，以驱动在先发核中的通道性多普辛的表达，然后修补夹记录，以表征通道性药物表达突触输入的存在和生理学，从特定来源投影IC神经元的特定总体可以映射为细胞类型特定的精度。我们表明，这种方法适用于Chronos，一种蓝光激活的通道，和ChrimsonR，一种红移导管。与前脑以前的报告相比，我们发现ChrimsonR被强强地向下枢击耳蜗核主要神经元的斧突下，这表明ChrimsonR可能是脑干中CRACM实验的有用工具。此处介绍的协议包括颅内病毒注射手术的详细说明，包括针对小鼠背耳蜗核和IC注射的立体坐标，以及如何结合整个细胞贴片夹记录与通道性多普辛激活，以研究对IC神经元的远距离投影。尽管此协议是为 IC 的听觉输入而定制的，但它可以很容易地调整，以研究听觉脑干及以后的其他远程投影。

我们穿过VIP-IRES-Cre小鼠（Viptm1（cre）Zjh/J）和Ai14克雷-报告鼠（B6）。Cg-Gt（ROSA）26Sortm14（CAG-tdTomato）赫兹/J）生成F1后代，其中VIP神经元表达荧光蛋白tdTomato。使用两个性别的F1后代，年龄为产后日（P）21至P70。在这项研究中，共有22只动物被使用。
AAV1 的立体注入。Syn.Chronos-GFP.WPRE.bGH 进入VIP-IRES-Cre...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins at JoVE.com

Long-range Channelrhodopsin-assisted Circuit Mapping of Inferior Colliculus Neurons with Blue and Red-shifted Channelrhodopsins

通道多普辛辅助电路映射 （CRACM） 是一种精确的技术，用于在解剖学和/或基因识别的神经元组之间进行远程神经元投影的功能映射。在这里，我们描述了如何使用CRACM来映射听觉脑干连接，包括使用红移蛋白，ChrimsonR。

具有蓝色和红移通道性通道性神经元的长距离通道多普辛辅助电路映射

When investigating neural circuits, a standard limitation of the in vitro patch clamp approach is that axons from multiple sources are often intermixed, ...

通道辅助电路映射是远程神经投影功能映射的精密技术。在这里，我们展示如何使用这种方法来研究听觉脑干中的电路。在大脑切片中，来自多个来源的轴子经常被混合，因此很难使用电刺激来分离单个输入。通过使用 CRACM，可以克服此限制。查找 lambda 并持续定义立体税坐标系是具有挑战性的，因为保持程序的持续时间很短。仔细规划所有步骤将提高您的成功率。首先用70%乙醇喷洒手术区，对无菌毛巾窗帘进行消毒，并放置无菌毛巾窗帘覆盖手术区域。取出笼子床上用品，以限制从回收笼中窒息的风险。接下来，在笼子下放一个加热垫，提供食物和水源。接下来，将动物转移到立体轴框架，并继续麻醉。插入直肠温度探头并打开恒下温度控制器。然后，涂抹眼科软膏，防止眼睛干涸。管理先发制人镇痛剂。最后，用电动剪子剃头皮。用三个交替拭子的波维酮碘和70%乙醇消毒头皮。开始手术，沿着中线在头皮上切口，从耳朵和眼睛的继续肩体开始，露出羊羔和白细胞缝合线。如有必要，将皮肤推到一侧，并去除外露骨骼的周分。接下来，用手术标记标记羔羊缝合线，定位纳米注射器的尖端，以便它只需触摸 lambda，将微操纵器坐标归零。使用纳米喷油器尖端和微操纵器测量羊舌和啤酒缝合线之间的高程差。调整调色板栏高度，使兰巴达和布雷格玛在正负 100 微米高度差内。使用纳米喷油器尖端和微操纵器坐标系映射注射部位，并使用手术标记标记注射部位。然后，使用带 0.5 毫米钻孔的微电机钻头对注射部位进行颅骨切除术。为了确保目标核中神经元的广泛转染，使用纳米喷油器在组织的不同深度和较大的大脑区域（如低劣的合体）进行注射，在两个或两个或更多穿透过程中在不同的X和Y坐标进行注射。注入劣质胶质，在2，250微米和1，750微米深度之间的Z轴上，在250微米的间隔内沉积20纳米的病毒。在背耳蜗核中注射时，分别沉积20纳米病毒，深度为4，750微米和4，550微米。在每个 Z 坐标处注射后，等待两到三分钟，然后将喷油器移动到下一个 Z 坐标，以便让病毒从注射部位扩散出去，从而降低在重新定位纳米喷油器时病毒被吸进注射区的可能性。然后，在上次注射后，等待三到五分钟，然后从大脑中收回纳米注射器。当纳米注射器从大脑的渗透和动物之间取出时，从尖端中弹出少量病毒，检查尖端是否堵塞。注射后，使用无菌PBS弄湿头皮的切边，然后轻轻地将皮肤移回中线。用6-0尼龙缝合线用简单的中断缝合线关闭伤口。然后，在伤口上涂抹0.5至1毫升2%利多卡因果冻。拆下耳杆和温度探针，转动异氟，然后将动物从调色板栏中取出，并将其转移到恢复笼中。最后，密切监视恢复情况。一旦动物完全清醒，四处走动，没有疼痛或痛苦的迹象，把它放回笼子里，然后把笼子放回笼子里。使用标准补丁夹法进行录制。首先将切片放在固定阶段直立显微镜下的录音室中，并持续以每分钟两毫升的速度用人工脑脊液进行大量处理。接下来，使用合适的贴片夹放大器在视觉控制下对神经元进行修补。最后，在批发录音过程中，通过 580 纳米光的短暂脉冲通过市售 LED 提供 470 纳米光或 ChrimsonR 的短暂脉冲，激活 Chronos。结果表明，ChrimsonR注射导致DCN的强烈表达，在细胞和纤维中可见tdTomato荧光。在相反的 ICC 中，三周后，用 tdTomato 强烈标记的纤维清晰可见，这显示了 ChrimsonR-tdTomato 结构在注入听觉脑干核时的长期贩运能力。IC VIP神经元中ChrimsonR的光学激活，表明当实验参数需要使用红灯而不是蓝光时，ChrimsonR是远程CRACM实验的有用工具。然而，我们发现，ChrimsonR 很容易用蓝光激活，显示与 Chronos 相同的蓝光激活阈值。对于此协议，最重要的是确保立体轴坐标正确，并确认病毒仅在目标大脑区域表示。通过用不同的病毒（例如，细胞特异性Flex病毒）交换Chronos ChrimsonR viro构造，您可以回答几个解剖或生理问题，而无需改变手术方案。

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Functional Mapping with Simultaneous MEG and EEG

同时脑磁图和脑电图的功能映射

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the ...

科研

神经科学

Genetic Study of Axon Regeneration with Cultured Adult Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons

培养成年的背根神经节神经元轴突再生的遗传研究

It is well known that mature neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) cannot regenerate their axons after injuries due to diminished intrinsic ability ...

Intracellular Recording, Sensory Field Mapping, and Culturing Identified Neurons in the Leech, Hirudo medicinalis

Intracellular Recording, Sensory Field Mapping, and Culturing Identified Neurons in the Leech, Hirudo medicinalis

细胞内记录，感官字段映射，并在水蛭养殖鉴定神经元，医用水蛭</i

The freshwater leech, Hirudo medicinalis, is a versatile model organism that has been used to address scientific questions in the fields of ...

Whole Mount Immunolabeling of Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Drosophila Antenna

Whole Mount Immunolabeling of Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Drosophila Antenna

嗅觉受体神经元在全山免疫标记<em&gt;果蝇</em&gt;天线

Odorant molecules bind to their target receptors in a precise and coordinated manner. Each receptor recognizes a specific signal and relays this ...

3-D Imaging and Analysis of Neurons Infected In Vivo with Toxoplasma gondii

3-D Imaging and Analysis of Neurons Infected In Vivo with Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate, intracellular parasite with a broad host range, including humans and rodents. In both humans and rodents, Toxoplasma ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

全细胞贴片记录用于电泳生理测定通道视紫质中的离子选择性

Over the past decade, channelrhodopsins became indispensable in neuroscientific research where they are used as tools to non-invasively manipulate ...

In Vivo Intracerebral Stereotaxic Injections for Optogenetic Stimulation of Long-Range Inputs in Mouse Brain Slices

在Vivo脑内立体注射中，用于小鼠脑切片中远距离输入的光遗传学刺激

Knowledge of cell-type specific synaptic connectivity is a crucial prerequisite for understanding brain-wide neuronal circuits. The functional ...

Wide-field Single-photon Optical Recording in Brain Slices Using Voltage-sensitive Dye

使用电压敏感染料在脑切片中进行宽场单光子光记录

Wide-field single photon voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging of brain slice preparations is a useful tool to assess the functional connectivity in neural ...

Meta-analysis of Voxel-Based Neuroimaging Studies using Seed-based d Mapping with Permutation of Subject Images (SDM-PSI)

Meta-analysis of Voxel-Based Neuroimaging Studies using Seed-based d Mapping with Permutation of Subject Images SDM-PSI

使用基于种子的 d 映射对基于体素的神经成像研究进行元分析，并结合主题图像的排列 （SDM-PSI）

Most methods for conducting meta-analysis of voxel-based neuroimaging studies do not assess whether effects are not null, but whether there is a ...

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Interrogation of Long-Range Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity from Medial Prefrontal Cortex to Lateral Entorhinal Cortex

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Interrogation of Long-Range Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity from Medial Prefrontal Cortex to Lateral Entorhinal Cortex

Studying the physiological properties of specific synapses in the brain, and how they undergo plastic changes, is a key challenge in modern neuroscience. ...