Name: assessing dyslexia at six year of age
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这项工作由安达卢西亚（西班牙）地区政府资助，通过公众呼吁提供资金，由SEJ-521研究小组申请，即学习障碍和发展障碍。

本研究报告是根据《赫尔辛基宣言》制定的，该宣言确立了发展人类研究的道德原则。此外，它遵循准则，并经马拉加大学实验伦理委员会（CEUMA）批准。
注：以下提出的协议应由心理学家在学校内执行，从小学第一年（6岁）开始，并在教师的协作下执行（图6）。
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_uplo...

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在这项研究中，我们提出了一个建议的诵读困难检测方案，从小学一年级开始在学校环境中应用。该行动规程考虑了诊断模式88、13、3213,32和对干预模式21、22、33、34、35、3622,33,34,35,36的反应，并?...

DSM-5 将特定的学习困难确立为神经发育障碍的诊断类别。诵读困难被认为是最常见的特定学习困难之一。其特点是准确、流利的单词识别以及拼写和矫形精度。这也导致阅读理解方面的困难。这些表现在开始接受义务教育后，从六岁开始出现。
近年来，早期诵读困难的流行率有所增加。一些作者指出，5%至17.5%的学龄儿童受阅读障碍22，33的影响。这些百分比表明考虑早期发现的重要性，因为它在学校和家庭环境中产生了严重后果，因为诵读困难患者的学习成绩很差，有时表现出社会情绪问题。
尽管如此，在如何识别诵读困难方面往往缺乏共识。这是因为关于不同解释性模型提供的识别标准是否充分的辩论，这些标准源于诵读困难定义中的模糊性。一方面，传统观点主张一种诊断模型来识别这些问题。然而，最近，对干预模式的反应已成为这种目的的一种替代办法。
诊断模型在确定诵读困难时考虑了几个标准：差异标准、排除标准和特异性标准（图 1、图 2、图 3、图 4）。
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1.jpg"> 图 1.诊断模型的标准<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图形的较大版本。</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2.jpg"> 图 2.差异标准<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图形的较大版本。</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3.jpg"> 图 3.诊断模型标准（排除标准）<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请单击此处查看此图形的较大版本。</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4.jpg"> 图 4.诊断模型的标准（特异性标准）<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击这里查看此图的较大版本。</a>
差异标准基于一个事实，即有阅读障碍的人智力潜能和表现存在差异。这个标准不被一些作者接受，他们发现没有必要使用智商来确定诵读困难44、55的外观。相反，其他作者发现，不同儿童比非发散儿童更耐干预，或者他们之间有差异66，7。7虽然差异标准受到广泛批评，但似乎没有就使用该标准达成共识。我们认为，在识别诵读困难方面，放弃智商还为时过早。放弃智商的使用可能会使得很难将这个问题与智力残疾等其他人区分开来。在这方面，差异应该是识别诵读困难的第一步。
排除标准是指诵读困难与伴随发生的其他特定疾病之间的差异。这些障碍通常是感官缺陷，精神残疾，情绪障碍和社会文化或教育的不利条件1，9。9对于其中一些疾病和诵读困难之间的重叠，存在着一些争议。因此，例如，社会情绪改变和社交能力低下有时被作为诵读困难者的特征，而实际上这些困难是由诵读困难10产生的。使用排除标准的拥护者认为，诵读困难有可能属于一种全面类别，其中包括其他合并性疾病11，如果不考虑其诊断。
具体性标准意味着对受阅读障碍影响的域的某些限制，如语言、推理和工具学习问题11、9。9一些作者认为，语言问题应该被纳入诵读困难12，13,13的范畴。然而，其他人认为，他们应该加以区分，并归类为共和条件，因为语言是在没有受过正规教育的情况下获得的，而其他领域确实需要这样的教学10。在这方面，诵读困难的特点是阅读和写作问题，在语音处理困难14，15或一般感觉缺陷14,1616，17。,那些认为诵读困难是音学处理缺陷的人表明，诵读困难在有效使用语音代码的任务中存在困难，在创建词的语音表示方面存在不足。因此，他们很难获得字母顺序原理和记住石墨-电话通信10。支持阅读障碍作为一般感官缺陷的人认为，有阅读障碍的人在需要快速处理听觉刺激的任务中存在困难，由于他们快速的时间处理不足，表现出听觉感知的困难。这些基本困难导致语音问题，这解释了他们认识到单词所面临的困难。
对干预模式的反应（RTI）通过多层次的预防系统，将评价和干预纳入学校系统，使学生的表现最大化，减少行为问题。这一模式可用于识别有出现阅读和写作困难风险的学生，监测其进展，并根据学生的反应进行干预。这种模式将诵读困难的人确定为对课堂上所有学生的干预没有反应的受试者，并假设这可能是由于认知或教育缺陷。识别诵读困难是一个决策过程，其中评估将穿插于指导。在每个评估阶段，考虑学生在每个教学阶段后取得的进展。因此，如果发现整个班级的绩效评估足够，则排除了所交付指令可能不足的可能性。一旦确认教学是否足够，第二阶段就通过课程措施确定任何成绩和进步低于同学的学生，认为他们是有阅读障碍风险的学生。在第三阶段，将对这些儿童适用个别课程调整。如果这些课程适应不够，因为孩子仍然没有进展，需要采取专门的教育措施，并且认为儿童是诵读困难19，20，21（19,20,21图5）。该模型侧重于学习成绩，消除了智商-性能差异和智力评估，减少了误报的数量8。然而，确定儿童是否对干预反应良好的标准很少。此外，这些问题与其他问题并存，而对干预不作出反应可能是由于它们之间存在合并症10、22、23。22,2310这些研究对使用RTI模型作为诊断工具持怀疑态度。
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5.jpg"> 图 5.多层模型系统"响应干预"<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60858/60858fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击这里查看此图的较大版本。</a>
因此，对于应该用来确定具体的学习障碍，特别是诵读困难的标准，似乎没有达成任何共识。诊断模型使用差异、排除和特异性标准，而对干预模型的反应则认为，在以适当指导为标准后，基本工具任务的性能不佳。这两种模式都受到批评，并存在某些弱点。为此，马拉加大学学习障碍和发展障碍研究小组制定了早期发现诵读困难方案，其中考虑了诊断模型的优点和对干预模式的反应。
简而言之，本文的目的是提出一个早期检测诵读困难的拟议方案。它着手提供一个客观的诊断程序，以评估这种神经发育障碍，以区别于其他共合并障碍，从早期。对于这种特定的学习障碍的诊断，议定书考虑到了在阅读和写作方面进行适当指导后对某些特定的认知和语言决定因素的评估（对干预模式的反应），以及差异、排除和特异性标准（诊断模型）。行动协议在不同类型的教学后分几个阶段制定，我们建议使用结构化的家长和教师访谈，以及评估智力、阅读和写作的标准化测试，以及决定问题出现的关键因素。该行动议定书为检测诵读困难提供了一个动态模型，旨在将其与其他合并问题区分开来，并确定其特征和决定因素，以便在早期提供有效的预防。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1392px;" width="1391">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:396px;">PROLEC-R. Bater&#237;a de Evaluaci&#243;n de los Procesos Lectores</td>
			<td style="width:153px;">TEA ediciones</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td style="width:717px;">This Instrument assess of reading performance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The dyslexia Screening Test-Junior</td>
			<td>Pearson Assessment</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td>Screening tests for dyslexia (writing, comprehension reading, phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabet, vocabulary)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The Wescher Intelligence Scale for Children- 5 edition</td>
			<td style="width:153px;">Pearson Assessment</td>
			<td style="width:125px;"></td>
			<td>This instrument assess the intelligence</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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assessing dyslexia at six year of age

近年来，不同国家和地区早期诵读困难的流行率有所上升。这种增加在学校和家庭环境中会产生严重后果，因为诵读困难患者的学习成绩很差，他们有时表现出社会情绪问题。在识别诵读困难方面最常见的问题之一是缺乏一种常见的诊断协议，其中包括评估任何儿童的具体标准。马拉加大学学习障碍和发展障碍研究小组制定了早期发现诵读困难方案。该协议基于对干预模型的诊断和响应。因此，根据最近的研究，它考虑到一些协会和专家委员会商定的诊断标准，以及某些具体的认知和语言决定因素，这些决定因素是经过适当指导后出现诵读困难的人的特征。行动协议分几个阶段制定，我们建议使用结构化的家长和教师访谈，以及评估智力、阅读和写作的标准化测试，以及决定问题出现的关键因素。该行动议定书为检测诵读困难提供了一个模式，力求将其与其他合并问题区分开来，并确定其特征和决定因素，以便从小就提供有效的干预和/或预防。

下一节将介绍一名被诊断患有诵读困难的学生根据拟议的行动方案获得的一系列具有代表性的结果。
表1显示了一年级小学生在语音感知、字母知识、词汇、阅读流利和理解能力、普通阅读和写作教学后取得的分数。结果显示，根据图7所示的水平线，大多数学生在评估中取得的平均得分相似，接近小组的平均成绩。这证实了他们收到的指令?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age at JoVE.com

Assessing Dyslexia at Six Year of Age

这项研究提出了一个确定诵读困难方案。该协议基于对干预模型的诊断和响应。该提案涉及使用结构化访谈和标准化测试来评估阅读和写作成绩和决定性因素。

评估六岁时的诵读困难

In recent years, there has been an increase in the prevalence of dyslexia at early ages in different countries and regions. This increase has serious ...

该协议的目的是提交一个建议的评估程序，在早期客观诊断阅读障碍。对于这种特定学习障碍的诊断，该协议考虑到对某些特定认知和语言决定因素的评估，在阅读和写作方面进行充分指导，对干预模型的反应，以及差异排除和特异性标准诊断模型。该行动协议显示了一个动态模型，用于检测诵读困难，旨在将其与其他合并症问题区分，并确定其特征和决定因素，以便在早期提供有效的干预和/或预防。诵读困难被认为是最常见的特定学习障碍之一，因此，神经发育的永久性障碍。它的特点是难以准确和流利的单词发音，以及拼写和正交的准确性。也是在阅读理解方面带来困难。对于如何识别诵读困难，往往缺乏共识。这是因为目前就不同解释性模式所提供的识别标准是否充分展开辩论。一方面，传统视角提倡一种诊断模型，用于识别这一问题。然而，对干预模式的回应有一个替代方案。诊断模型考虑了几种识别诵读困难的标准：差异标准、排除标准和特异性标准。差异标准基于这样一个事实，即有阅读障碍的人智力潜力与表现之间存在差异。排除标准是指诵读困难与特定疾病之间的差别。特异性标准意味着对阅读障碍中受影响的领域（如语言、推理和工具学习问题）的某些限制。另一方面，对干预模型的反应将阅读障碍者确定为对课堂中其他学生的干预收据没有反应的受试者，并假定这可能是由于加速或教育缺陷造成的。基于该模型，对阅读障碍的识别是一个决策过程，其中评估阶段将穿插一个教学阶段。在每个评估阶段，考虑学生在每个教学阶段后取得的进展。对于应用于确定特定学习障碍，特别是阅读障碍的标准，似乎尚未达成任何共识。巴特的模型因存在某些弱点而受到批评。因此，M大学发展障碍研究小组的学习障碍

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Assessment of Age-related Changes in Cognitive Functions Using EmoCogMeter, a Novel Tablet-computer Based Approach

与年龄相关的变化认知功能使用EmoCogMeter，新型平板计算机基础法评估

The main goal of this study was to assess the usability of a tablet-computer-based application (EmoCogMeter) in investigating the effects of age on ...

科研

行为学

Assessing Forelimb Function after Unilateral Cervical SCI using Novel Tasks: Limb Step-alternation, Postural Instability and Pasta Handling

采用新型任务评估前肢功能单侧颈脊髓损伤后：肢体步交替，姿势不稳和面食处理

Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) can cause devastating neurological deficits, including impairment or loss of upper limb and hand function. A majority ...

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

针对调查中的认知控制网络与关联维度变化卡片分类性能的功能连通性年龄相关性差异的方法

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

Assessing Functional Performance in the Mdx Mouse Model

Assessing Functional Performance in the Mdx Mouse Model

评估在功能性能<em&gt; MDX</em&gt;小鼠模型

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe and progressive muscle wasting disorder for which no cure is available. Nevertheless, several potential ...

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

操作性程序，以评估大鼠的行为灵活性

Executive functions consist of multiple high-level cognitive processes that drive rule generation and behavioral selection. An emergent property of these ...

Assessing the Multiple Dimensions of Engagement to Characterize Learning: A Neurophysiological Perspective

评估参与的多维度来表征学习：神经生理学角度

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: ...

Behavioral Assessment of Hearing in 2 to 4 Year-old Children: A Two-interval, Observer-based Procedure Using Conditioned Play-based Responses

2听证会，以4岁儿童的行为评估：两区间，观测为基础的应用程序基于条件性播放响应

Collecting reliable behavioral data from toddlers and preschoolers is challenging. As a result, there are significant gaps in our understanding of human ...

Assessing the Effects of Music Listening on Psychobiological Stress in Daily Life

评估音乐的影响听力在日常生活Psychobiological压力

Music listening is associated with stress-reducing effects. However, most of the results on music listening and stress were gathered in experimental ...

The Knob Supination Task: A Semi-automated Method for Assessing Forelimb Function in Rats

旋钮旋任务: 一种半自动评估大鼠前肢功能的方法

Tasks that accurately measure dexterity in animal models are critical to understand hand function. Current rat behavioral tasks that measure dexterity ...

Assessing Activity-based Anorexia in Mice

小鼠活动性厌食症的评估

Rodents develop activity-based anorexia (ABA) when exposed to a restricted feeding schedule and allowed free access to a running wheel. These conditions ...