Name: a small-scale setup for algal toxicity testing of nanomaterials and other difficult substances
Uploaded: 2020-10-10T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Small-Scale Setup for Algal Toxicity Testing of Nanomaterials and Other Difficult Substances at JoVE.com

This research was funded by PATROLS &#8211; Advanced Tools for NanoSafety Testing, Grant agreement 760813 under Horizon 2020 research and innovation program.

1. Description of the LEVITATT setup
<ol>
	<li>Use 20 mL scintillation glass vials (Figure 1, insert 1) allowing light penetration. Alternatively, light penetrable plastic vials can be used. Quantify the light intensity using a photometer.</li>
	<li>Use at least a 4 mL test suspension at the beginning of the test to allow for quantification of biomass and for characterization/quantification of nanomaterials during and after incubation (Figure 1, insert 2).</li...

<ol>
	<li>European Chemicals Agency. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidance+on+Registration.">Guidance on Registration.</a> European Chemicals Agency. , (2016).</li><li>Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidance+Document+on+Aquatic+Toxicity+Testing+of+Difficult+Substances+and+Mixtures.">Guidance Document on Aquatic Toxicity Testing of Difficult Substances and Mixtures.</a> Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. , (2019).</li><li>Blaise, C., Legault, R., Bermingham, N., Van Coillie, R., Vasseur, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+microplate+algal+assay+technique+for+aquatic+toxicity+assessment.">A simple microplate algal assay technique for aquatic toxicity assessment.</a> Toxicity Assessment. 1 (3), 261-281 (1986).</li><li>Hjorth, R., Sorensen, S. 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H., Nyholm, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+miniscale+algal+toxicity+test.">A miniscale algal toxicity test.</a> Chemosphere. 30 (11), 2103-2115 (1995).</li><li>Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Test+No.+201:+Freshwater+Alga+and+Cyanobacteria,+Growth+Inhibition+Test.">Test No. 201: Freshwater Alga and Cyanobacteria, Growth Inhibition Test.</a> Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. , (2011).</li><li>International Organization for Standardization (ISO). <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+Quality+-+Fresh+Water+Algal+Growth+Inhibition+Test+with+Unicellular+Green+Algae.">Water Quality - Fresh Water Algal Growth Inhibition Test with Unicellular Green Algae.</a> International Organization for Standardization (ISO). , (2012).</li><li>Halling-S&#248;rensen, B., Nyhohn, N., Baun, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Algal+toxicity+tests+with+volatile+and+hazardous+compounds+in+air-tight+test+flasks+with+CO2+enriched+headspace.">Algal toxicity tests with volatile and hazardous compounds in air-tight test flasks with CO2 enriched headspace.</a> Chemosphere. 32 (8), 1513-1526 (1996).</li><li>Mayer, P., Nyholm, N., Verbruggen, E. M. J., Hermens, J. L. M., Tolls, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Algal+growth+inhibition+test+in+filled,+closed+bottles+for+volatile+and+sorptive+materials.">Algal growth inhibition test in filled, closed bottles for volatile and sorptive materials.</a> Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 19 (10), 2551-2556 (2000).</li><li>Ritz, C., Baty, F., Streibig, J. C., Gerhard, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dose-response+analysis+using+R.">Dose-response analysis using R.</a> PloS One. 10 (12), 0146021 (2015).</li><li>Birch, H., Kramer, N. I., Mayer, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-resolved+freely+dissolved+concentrations+of+semivolatile+and+hydrophobic+test+chemicals+in+in+vitro+assays-measuring+high+losses+and+crossover+by+headspace+solid-phase+microextraction.">Time-resolved freely dissolved concentrations of semivolatile and hydrophobic test chemicals in in vitro assays-measuring high losses and crossover by headspace solid-phase microextraction.</a> Chemical Research in Toxicology. 32 (9), 1780-1790 (2019).</li><li>Trac, L. N., Schmidt, S. N., Mayer, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Headspace+passive+dosing+of+volatile+hydrophobic+chemicals+-+toxicity+testing+exactly+at+the+saturation+level.">Headspace passive dosing of volatile hydrophobic chemicals - toxicity testing exactly at the saturation level.</a> Chemosphere. 211, 694-700 (2018).</li><li>Eisentraeger, A., Dott, W., Klein, J., Hahn, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+studies+on+algal+toxicity+testing+using+fluorometric+microplate+and+Erlenmeyer+flask+growth-inhibition+assays.">Comparative studies on algal toxicity testing using fluorometric microplate and Erlenmeyer flask growth-inhibition assays.</a> Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 54 (3), 346-354 (2003).</li><li>Paixao, S. M., Silva, L., Fernandes, A., O'Rourke, K., Mendonca, E., Picado, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Performance+of+a+miniaturized+algal+bioassay+in+phytotoxicity+screening.">Performance of a miniaturized algal bioassay in phytotoxicity screening.</a> Ecotoxicology. 17 (3), 165-171 (2008).</li><li>Thellen, C., Blaise, C., Roy, Y., Hickey, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Round-robin+testing+with+the+selenastrum--capricornutum+microplate+toxicity+assay.">Round-robin testing with the selenastrum--capricornutum microplate toxicity assay.</a> Hydrobiologia. 188, 259-268 (1989).</li><li>Nagai, T., Taya, K., Annoh, H., Ishihara, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+a+fluorometric+microplate+algal+toxicity+assay+for+riverine+periphytic+algal+species.">Application of a fluorometric microplate algal toxicity assay for riverine periphytic algal species.</a> Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 94, 37-44 (2013).</li><li>Lee, W. M., An, Y. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+zinc+oxide+and+titanium+dioxide+nanoparticles+on+green+algae+under+visible,+UVA,+and+UVB+irradiations:+no+evidence+of+enhanced+algal+toxicity+under+UV+pre-irradiation.">Effects of zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles on green algae under visible, UVA, and UVB irradiations: no evidence of enhanced algal toxicity under UV pre-irradiation.</a> Chemosphere. 91 (4), 536-544 (2013).</li><li>Samei, M., Sarrafzadeh, M. H., Faramarzi, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+morphology+and+size+of+zinc+oxide+nanoparticles+on+its+toxicity+to+the+freshwater+microalga,+Raphidocelis+subcapitata.">The impact of morphology and size of zinc oxide nanoparticles on its toxicity to the freshwater microalga, Raphidocelis subcapitata.</a> Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 26 (3), 2409-2420 (2019).</li><li>Neale, P. A., Jaemting, A. K., O'Malley, E., Herrmann, J., Escher, B. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behaviour+of+titanium+dioxide+and+zinc+oxide+nanoparticles+in+the+presence+of+wastewater-derived+organic+matter+and+implications+for+algal+toxicity.">Behaviour of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles in the presence of wastewater-derived organic matter and implications for algal toxicity.</a> Environmental Science: Nano. 2 (1), 86-93 (2015).</li><li>Hartmann, N. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+challenges+of+testing+metal+and+metal+oxide+nanoparticles+in+algal+bioassays:+titanium+dioxide+and+gold+nanoparticles+as+case+studies.">The challenges of testing metal and metal oxide nanoparticles in algal bioassays: titanium dioxide and gold nanoparticles as case studies.</a> Nanotoxicology. 7 (6), 1082-1094 (2013).</li><li>Farkas, J., Booth, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Are+fluorescence-based+chlorophyll+quantification+methods+suitable+for+algae+toxicity+assessment+of+carbon+nanomaterials.">Are fluorescence-based chlorophyll quantification methods suitable for algae toxicity assessment of carbon nanomaterials.</a> Nanotoxicology. 11 (4), 569-577 (2017).</li><li>Handy, R. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Practical+considerations+for+conducting+ecotoxicity+test+methods+with+manufactured+nanomaterials:+what+have+we+learnt+so+far.">Practical considerations for conducting ecotoxicity test methods with manufactured nanomaterials: what have we learnt so far.</a> Ecotoxicology. 21 (4), 933-972 (2012).</li><li>Handy, R. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ecotoxicity+test+methods+for+engineered+nanomaterials:+practical+experiences+and+recommendations+from+the+bench.">Ecotoxicity test methods for engineered nanomaterials: practical experiences and recommendations from the bench.</a> Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 31 (1), 15-31 (2012).</li></ol>

Phytoplankton converts solar energy and carbon dioxide to organic matter and thus holds a pivotal role in the aquatic ecosystem. For this reason, algal growth rate inhibition tests are included as one of three mandatory aquatic toxicity tests required for regulatory risk assessment of chemicals. The ability to perform a reliable and reproducible algal toxicity test is key in this regard. Test setups using Erlenmeyer flasks introduces a range of variabilities and inconveniences as described in the introduction. To circumv...

The algal toxicity test is one of only three mandatory tests used to generate the ecotoxicity data required for pre- and post-market registration of chemicals by European and international regulations (e.g., REACH1 and TSCA (USA)). For this purpose, standardized algal test guidelines have been developed by international organizations (e.g., ISO and OECD). These testing standards and guidelines prescribe ideal test conditions in terms of pH, temperature, carbon dioxide levels and light intensity. However, maintaining stable test conditions during algal testing is in practice difficult and the results suffer from problems with reproducibility and reliability for a range of chemical substances and nanomaterials (often referred to as &#8220;difficult substances&#8221;)2. Most of the existing algal toxicity testing setups operate with relatively large volumes (100&#8211;250 mL) situated on an orbital shaker inside an incubator. Such a setup limits the number of test concentrations and replicates achievable and high volumes of algal culture and test material. Additionally, these setups rarely have a uniform light field and reliable lighting conditions are furthermore difficult to obtain in large flasks, partly as light intensity decreases exponentially the further the light travels and partly due to the flask geometry. Alternative setups comprise plastic microtiter3 plates containing small sample volumes that do not allow for adequate sampling volumes to measure pH, additional biomass measurements, pigment extraction or other analyses requiring destructive sampling. One particular challenge using existing setups for algal toxicity testing of nanomaterials and substances forming colored suspensions is the interference or blocking of the light available to the algal cells, often referred to as &#8220;shading&#8221;4,5. Shading may occur within vials by the test material and/or interactions between the test material and the algal cells, or shading can occur between vials, due to their positioning relative to each other and the light source.
The method is based on the small-scale algal toxicity test setup introduced by Arensberg et al.6 that allows for testing in compliance with standards such as OECD 2017, and ISO 86928. The method is further optimized to address the limitations stated above by: 1) utilizing the LED light technology to ensure uniform light conditions with minimal heat generation, 2) providing adequate sample volume for chemical/biological analysis while maintaining constant pH, CO2 levels, and 3) enabling the use of versatile test container material for testing of volatile substances or substances with a high sorption potential.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>V179124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>254134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BlueCap bottles (1L)</td>
			<td>Buch &#38; Holm A/S</td>
			<td>&#160;9072335</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Boric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>B0394</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium chloride dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>208290</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clear acrylic sheet (40x40 cm)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>255599</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper(II) chloride dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>307483</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>&#160;E5134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence Spectrophotometer F-7000</td>
			<td>Hitachi</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>258148</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iron(III) chloride hexahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>236489</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED light source</td>
			<td>Helmholt Elektronik A/S</td>
			<td>H35161</td>
			<td>Neutral White, 6500K</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride hexahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M9272</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>230391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manganese(II) chloride tetrahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>221279</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaker</td>
			<td>IKA</td>
			<td>2980200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0662</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Raphidocelis subcapitata</td>
			<td>NORCCA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>NIVA-CHL1 strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scintillation vials (20 mL)</td>
			<td>Fisherscientific</td>
			<td>11526325</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S6014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>415413</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium molybdate dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>331058&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spring clamp</td>
			<td>Frederiksen Scientific A/S</td>
			<td>472002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermostatic cabinet</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>WTWA208450</td>
			<td>Alternative: temperature controlled room</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ventilation pipe (&#216;125 mm)</td>
			<td>Silvan</td>
			<td>22605630165</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Volumetric flasks (25 mL)</td>
			<td>DWK Life Sciences</td>
			<td>246781455</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zinc chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>208086</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a small-scale setup for algal toxicity testing of nanomaterials and other difficult substances

Ecotoxicity data is a requirement for pre- and post-market registration of chemicals by European and international regulations (e.g., REACH). The algal toxicity test is frequently used in regulatory risk assessment of chemicals. In order to achieve high reliability and reproducibility the development of standardized guidelines is vital. For algal toxicity testing, the guidelines require stable and uniform conditions of parameters such as pH, temperature, carbon dioxide levels and light intensity. Nanomaterials and other so-called difficult substances can interfere with light causing a large variation in results obtained hampering their regulatory acceptance. To address these challenges, we have developed LEVITATT (LED Vertical Illumination Table for Algal Toxicity Tests). The setup utilizes LED illumination from below allowing for a homogenous light distribution and temperature control while also minimizing intra-sample shading. The setup optimizes the sample volume for biomass quantification and does at the same time ensure a sufficient influx of CO2 to support exponential growth of the algae. Additionally, the material of the test containers can be tailored to minimize adsorption and volatilization. When testing colored substances or particle suspensions, the use of LED lights also allows for increasing the light intensity without additional heat generation. The compact design and minimal equipment requirements increase the possibilities for implementation of the LEVITATT in a wide range of laboratories. While compliant with standardized ISO and OECD guidelines for algal toxicity testing, LEVITATT also showed a lower inter-sample variability for two reference substances (3,5-Dicholorophenol and K2Cr2O7) and three nanomaterials (ZnO, CeO2, and BaSO4) compared to Erlenmeyer flasks and microtiter plates.

An initial test with a reference substance is carried out to determine the sensitivity of the algal strain. Reference substances regularly used for R. subcapitata are potassium dichromate and 3,5-Dichlorphenol7,8. Figure 3 and Table 2 show a representative result of an algal test including curve fitting and statistical outputs when the DRC package in R is applied to the growth rates.
<p class="jove_conte...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Small-Scale Setup for Algal Toxicity Testing of Nanomaterials and Other Difficult Substances at JoVE.com

A Small-Scale Setup for Algal Toxicity Testing of Nanomaterials and Other Difficult Substances

We demonstrate algal toxicity testing for difficult substances (e.g., colored substances or nanomaterials) using a setup illuminated vertically with an LED.

Ecotoxicity data is a requirement for pre- and post-market registration of chemicals by European and international regulations (e.g., REACH). The algal ...

When a chemical company wants to put a new chemical or another material to the market, they need to deliver data from a series of ecotoxicity tests. The algal test is one of the three mandatory tests that needs to be performed. The algal test suffers from the fact that it's quite challenging to perform.For this reason, we have developed the LEVITATT testing platform. The LEVITATT uses LED light to avoid problems with excessive heat generation. Furthermore, it ensures a uniform light field.It has a compact size, meaning that you don't need much space to perform the algae test, but at the same time, it allows for using enough sample volume to perform chemical analysis and characterization before, during, and after testing. This is especially important when you test nanomaterials. This video will demonstrate the use of LEVITATT for algal toxicity testing of nanomaterials and other difficult substances.The demonstration consists of the following four steps. First, describe the components of the LEVITATT. The second step is to prepare the solution for algae growth media.And the third step is to give an overview of the procedure of how to perform an algae toxicity test. The final step is to measure the increase in algal biomass by fluorometer. The LEVITATT can be placed in the temperature-controlled cabinet of room.This allows for stable temperature throughout the exposure. The setup is placed on an orbital shaker to allow for rotation of the samples during the test. The test is conducted in 20-milliliter scintillation vials containing four milliliters exposure medium.A screw cap with a drilled hole allows for CO2 exchange with air during the exposure. The LED source is sandwiched between two plastic sheets and located in the center of each casing. The placement creates a homogeneous light field and minimizes shading between the samples.Each casing is mounted with clamps and can hold up to five samples. The compact size minimizes the space required to perform the experiment. To prepare the stock solutions, weigh out the appropriate amount of each compound.The stock solution consists of various salts vital for the growth of the algae. When the appropriate amount of salts have been weighed out, they are diluted with ultra-pure water. The stock solutions are sterilized either by filtrating or autoclaving.After sterilization, the stock solutions can be stored in the dark at four degrees Celsius. Prepare a series of exposure concentrations. The factor between the exposure concentrations should not exceed 3.2.The appropriate volume of exponentially growing algae is added to each test concentration. The final cell density should be approximately 10, 000 algal cells per milliliter. It is key that the pre culture is exponentially growing to fulfill the validity criteria of the test.The measuring vials are mixed to allow for a homogeneous distribution of algae and compound before sampling. The samples are poured into beakers, and four milliliters is pipetted into 20-milliliter scintillation vials. The scintillation vials are now capped.Pipette 0.4 milliliter from each concentration. Add 1.6 milliliter acetone to disrupt the cell wall and release the chlorophyll to the liquid phase. Each glass vial is now close tightly to avoid evaporation of acetone during storage.The capped scintillation vials are now randomly distributed in the LEVITATT and incubated for 72 hours. Measure the light intensity and the temperature at the start and end of incubation to ensure compliance with desired guidelines. Sub-sampling is done at 24 hours'interval by pipetting 0.4 milliliters from each scintillation vials into glass vials.Add 1.6 million acetone to disrupt the cell wall and release the chlorophyll to the liquid phase. After acetone is added, screw the lids on tightly and leave the samples in the dark until analysis. Use a fluorometer to quantify the biomass in the sample acquired throughout the testing period.The settings on the fluorometer should be 420 nanometers as excitation wavelength and an emission wavelength of 671 nanometers. Each individual sample is measured three times, and the relative values are noted. The relative values from the fluorometer is used to calculate the growth rate which will be used for further data treatment.Use a statistical software to fit a nonlinear regression curve to the calculated growth rate data. An example of a nonlinear regression curve could be a log-logistic of viable function. The associated 95%confidence interval is shown alongside the model fit.Regularly effective concentration values such as 10, 20, and 50%inefficient are used to report the result of an ecotoxicity test. In conclusion, the LEVITATT provides a compact platform for algal toxicity testing of regular chemicals compliant with international standardized guidelines. Furthermore, the setup provides a robust platform for testing of difficult substances that interfere with the passage of light towards the algal, such as nanomaterials or colored substances.

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Assaying Predatory Feeding Behaviors in Pristionchus and Other Nematodes

Assaying Predatory Feeding Behaviors in Pristionchus and Other Nematodes

This protocol provides multiple methods for the analysis and quantification of predatory feeding behaviors in nematodes. Many nematode species including ...

Extraction of Structural Extracellular Polymeric Substances from Aerobic Granular Sludge

To evaluate and develop methodologies for the extraction of gel-forming extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), EPS from aerobic granular sludge (AGS) ...

Comparison of Scale in a Photosynthetic Reactor System for Algal Remediation of Wastewater

An experimental methodology is presented to compare the performance of two different sized reactors designed for wastewater treatment. In this study, ...

Functionalization and Dispersion of Carbon Nanomaterials Using an Environmentally Friendly Ultrasonicated Ozonolysis Process

Functionalization of carbon nanomaterials is often a critical step that facilitates their integration into larger material systems and devices. In the ...

Dispersion of Nanomaterials in Aqueous Media: Towards Protocol Optimization

The sonication process is commonly used for de-agglomerating and dispersing nanomaterials in aqueous based media, necessary to improve homogeneity and ...

Harvesting Venom Toxins from Assassin Bugs and Other Heteropteran Insects

Heteropteran insects such as assassin bugs (Reduviidae) and giant water bugs (Belostomatidae) descended from a common predaceous and venomous ancestor, ...

A High-throughput Assay for the Prediction of Chemical Toxicity by Automated Phenotypic Profiling of Caenorhabditis elegans

A High-throughput Assay for the Prediction of Chemical Toxicity by Automated Phenotypic Profiling of Caenorhabditis elegans

Applying toxicity testing of chemicals in higher order organisms, such as mice or rats, is time-consuming and expensive, due to their long lifespan and ...

Development and Testing of Species-specific Quantitative PCR Assays for Environmental DNA Applications

New, non-invasive methods for detecting and monitoring species presence are being developed to aid in fisheries and wildlife conservation management. The ...