Name: dissection, immunohistochemistry and mounting of larval and adult drosophila brains for optic lobe visualization
Uploaded: 2021-04-28T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dissection, Immunohistochemistry and Mounting of Larval and Adult Drosophila Brains for Optic Lobe Visualization at JoVE.com

We would like to thank Claude Desplan for sharing with us an aliquot of the Bsh antibody. The DE-Cadherin, Dachshund, Eyes Absent, Seven-up and Bruchpilot monoclonal antibodies were obtained from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, created by the NICHD of the NIH and maintained at The University of Iowa, Department of Biology, Iowa City, IA 52242. This work was supported by an NSERC Discovery Grant awarded to T.E.. U.A. is supported by an NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship. P.V. is supported by an Ontario Graduate Scholarship.

1. Preparing larval brains for confocal imaging
<ol>
	<li>Dissections 
	NOTE: Before starting the dissection, prepare the fix (4% formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (PBS)) and PBT (0.1-0.3% Triton in PBS) solutions. The fix solution should be placed on ice during the dissection. Although paraformaldehyde (PFA) fixative is used in this protocol, alternative fixing strategies (using PLP20 or PEM21) have been described for specific epitopes. For ...

<ol>
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L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+Principles+of+Insect+and+Vertebrate+Visual+Systems.">Design Principles of Insect and Vertebrate Visual Systems.</a> Neuron. 66, 15-36 (2010).</li><li>N&#233;riec, N., Desplan, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+the+Eye+to+the+Brain.+Development+of+the+Drosophila+Visual+System.">From the Eye to the Brain. Development of the Drosophila Visual System.</a> Current Topics in Developmental Biology. 116, 247-271 (2016).</li><li>Apitz, H., Salecker, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Challenge+of+Numbers+and+Diversity:+Neurogenesis+in+the+Drosophila+Optic+Lobe.">A Challenge of Numbers and Diversity: Neurogenesis in the Drosophila Optic Lobe.</a> Journal of Neurogenetics. 28, 233-249 (2014).</li><li>Contreras, E. G., Sierralta, J., Oliva, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+strategies+for+the+generation+of+neuronal+diversity:+Lessons+from+the+fly+visual+system.">Novel strategies for the generation of neuronal diversity: Lessons from the fly visual system.</a> Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 12, 140 (2019).</li><li>Erclik, T., Hartenstein, V., Lipshitz, H. D., McInnes, R. 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In this protocol, we describe a method to immunostain larval and adult Drosophila brains and mount them in several orientations. While methods to stain larval and adult brains have been previously described22,23,24,27,28, mounting strategies for the optimal visualization of specific optic lobe structures have received less attention2...

The Drosophila visual system, comprised of the compound eye and underlying optic lobe, has been an excellent model for the study of neural circuit development and function. In recent years, the optic lobe in particular has emerged as a powerful system in which to study neurodevelopmental processes such as neurogenesis and circuit wiring1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. It is made up of four neuropils: the lamina, medulla, lobula and lobula plate (the latter two comprise the lobula complex)1,2,3,4,5,6. Photoreceptors from the eye, target neurons of the lamina and medulla, which process visual inputs and relay them to the neuropils of the lobula complex1,2,3,4,5,6. Projection neurons in the lobula complex subsequently send visual information to the higher order processing centers in the central brain1,5,9. The complex organization of the optic lobe, necessitated by a need to maintain retinotopy and to process different types of visual stimuli, makes it an attractive system for studying how sophisticated neural circuits are assembled. Notably, the medulla shares striking similarities in both its organization and development with the neuroretina, which has long been a model for vertebrate neural circuit development3,8.
Optic lobe development begins during embryogenesis, with the specification of ~35 ectodermal cells that form the optic placode2,4,5,6,7,8. After larval hatching, the optic placode is subdivided into two distinct primordia: 1) the outer proliferation center (OPC), which generates the neurons of the lamina and outer medulla and 2) the inner proliferation center (IPC), which generates neurons of the inner medulla and lobula complex4,5,6,10. In the late second-instar larva, the neuroepithelial cells of the OPC and IPC begin to transform into neuroblasts that subsequently generate neurons via intermediate ganglion mother cells4,5,11,12. Optic lobe neuroblasts are patterned by spatially and temporally-restricted transcription factors, which act together to generate neural diversity in their progeny11,12,13,14. In the pupa, the circuits of the optic lobe neuropils are assembled via the coordination of several processes, including programmed cell death11,15, neuronal migration12,16, axonal/dendritic targeting10,17, synapse formation18,19 and neuropil rotations10,17.
Here, we describe the methodology by which larval and adult brains are dissected, immunostained and mounted for imaging the optic lobe. Given its complex three-dimensional organization, analysis of the optic lobe requires that one understand how its adult neuropils and larval progenitors are positioned relative to each other and the central brain. Thus, we put special emphasis on how the orientation of mounting relates to the spatial organization of the optic lobe structures. We describe three mounting strategies for larval brains (anterior, posterior and lateral) and three for adult brains (anterior, posterior and horizontal), each of which provide an optimal angle for imaging a specific optic lobe progenitor population or neuropil.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1077px;" width="1077">
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	<tbody>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">10x PBS</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Bioshop</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">PBS405</td>
			<td style="width:357px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">37% formaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Bioshop</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">FOR201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Alexa Fluor 488 (goat) secondary</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">A-11055</td>
			<td>use at 1:501</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Alexa Fluor 555 (mouse) secondary</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">A-31570</td>
			<td>use at 1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Alexa Fluor 647 (guinea pig) secondary</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">A-21450</td>
			<td>use at 1:503</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Alexa Fluor 647 (rat) secondary</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">A-21247</td>
			<td>use at 1:502</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Cover slips</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">48366-067</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Dissecting forceps - #5</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Dumont</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">11251-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Dissecting forceps - #55</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Dumont</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">11295-51</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Dissection Dish</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Corning</td>
			<td>722085</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Dry wipes</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Kimbery Clark</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">34155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Goat anti-Bgal primary antibody</td>
			<td>Biogenesis</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>use at 1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Guinea pig anti-Bsh primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Gift from Claude Desplan</td>
			<td style="width:164px;"></td>
			<td style="width:357px;">use at 1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Guinea pig anti-Vsx1 primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Erclik et al. 2008</td>
			<td style="width:164px;"></td>
			<td style="width:357px;">use at 1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Laboratory film</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Parfilm</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">PM-996</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Sarstedt</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">72.706.600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Microscope slides</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">CA4823-180</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Mouse anti-dac primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB)</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">mabdac2-3</td>
			<td>use at 1:20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Mouse anti-eya primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">DSHB</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">eya10H6</td>
			<td>use at 1:20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Mouse anti-nc82 primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">DSHB</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">nc82</td>
			<td>use at 1:50</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Mouse anti-svp primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">DSHB</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">Seven-up 2D3</td>
			<td>use at 1:100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Polymer Clay</td>
			<td>Any type of clay can be used</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Rabbit anti-GFP</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">A-11122</td>
			<td>use at 1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Rat anti-DE-Cadherin primary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">DSHB</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">DCAD2</td>
			<td>use at 1:20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Slowfade mounting medium</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">S36967</td>
			<td>Vectashield mounting medium ( cat# H-1000) can also be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:27px;width:231px;">Triton-x-100</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Bioshop</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">TRX506</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

dissection, immunohistochemistry and mounting of larval and adult drosophila brains for optic lobe visualization

The Drosophila optic lobe, comprised of four neuropils: the lamina, medulla, lobula and lobula plate, is an excellent model system for exploring the developmental mechanisms that generate neural diversity and drive circuit assembly. Given its complex three-dimensional organization, analysis of the optic lobe requires that one understand how its adult neuropils and larval progenitors are positioned relative to each other and the central brain. Here, we describe a protocol for the dissection, immunostaining and mounting of larval and adult brains for optic lobe imaging. Special emphasis is placed on the relationship between mounting orientation and the spatial organization of the optic lobe. We describe three mounting strategies in the larva (anterior, posterior and lateral) and three in the adult (anterior, posterior and horizontal), each of which provide an ideal imaging angle for a distinct optic lobe structure.

Confocal images of larval and adult optic lobes mounted in the orientations described in the protocol are presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Figure 1 shows schematics and representative confocal slices of larval brains positioned in the anterior, posterior and lateral orientations. In the anterior mounting orientation, the OPC epithelium (DE-Cadherin), medulla neuroblasts (deadpan&#62;&#946;gal)...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dissection, Immunohistochemistry and Mounting of Larval and Adult Drosophila Brains for Optic Lobe Visualization at JoVE.com

Dissection, Immunohistochemistry and Mounting of Larval and Adult Drosophila Brains for Optic Lobe Visualization

This protocol describes three steps to prepare larval and adult Drosophila optic lobes for imaging: 1) brain dissections, 2) immunohistochemistry and 3) mounting. Emphasis is placed on step 3, as distinct mounting orientations are required to visualize specific optic lobe structures.&#160;

Dissection, Immunohistochemistry and Mounting of Larval and Adult Drosophila Brains for Optic Lobe Visualization

The Drosophila optic lobe, comprised of four neuropils: the lamina, medulla, lobula and lobula plate, is an excellent model system for exploring the ...

We describe a protocol to dissect, immunostain and mount larval and adult Drosophila brains with a special emphasis on the optic lobes. Given the optic lobe's complex three-dimensional organization, it is anticipated that the protocol described here will provide researchers with a greater understanding of the relationship between mounting orientation and the optic lobe structures visualized. This protocol describes three mounting strategies for both larval and adult optic lobes, each of which provide an optimal angle to visualize a specific optic lobe structure during imaging.Before beginning the dissection, fill all wells of a three well plate with 400 microliters of PBS per well, and use forceps to gently select 15 wandering third instar larvae crawling on the inside of a drosophila vial or bottle. Place all larvae in the first well of the three well plate, and transfer one larva into the middle well of the plate. Using the non-dominant hand, restrain the body of the larva at the base of the well and use the dominant hand to gently grasp the larva mouth hook.Pull the mouth hook away from the body to remove the brain. Subsequently, remove the accessory tissues, including the imaginal discs. Then place the brain into the third well of the plate.When all brains have been dissected, use a P200 pipette to carefully remove the PBS from the third well, leaving just enough solution to keep the brain submerged. Add 500 microliters of freshly prepared cold fixation solution to the well. Gently stir the solution with the forceps so that the brain swirl in the dish, and cover the well with a glass microscope slide.Then place the dish on ice for 30 minutes to fix the tissue. Wash the brains five times with 400 microliters of fresh PBS plus triton per wash. The brains are now ready for primary antibody incubation.For adult brain dissections, anesthetize 10 to 15 adult flies and place them on a lab wipe over ice. Use forceps to gently transfer one adult fly by the wing into one well of a three well dissection plate containing 400 microliters of PBS. Use a pair of forceps in the non-dominant hand to hold the thorax of the fly against the base of the well, and use ultra fine forceps with the dominant hand to gently pull the head from the rest of the body.Discard the body onto a lab wipe with the non-dominant hand and use the dominant hand to hold the head against the base of the well by the proboscis. Use both forceps to peel away each region of the cuticle between the eyes, until the brain is exposed, and remove any accessory tissues that remain attached to the brain. Place the cleaned brain into the third well and dissect the next brain as demonstrated, until 15 brains have been obtained, or a maximum dissection period of 30 minutes has elapsed.Fix the brains with 500 microliters of fixation solution for 20 minutes at room temperature, and wash the brains five times with PBS plus triton, as demonstrated. Adult brains are now ready for primary antibody incubation. Replace the last wash with two drops of fluorescent safe mounting medium to submerge the brains, and add a single drop of mounting medium to the center of a new glass microscope slide.Use forceps to grasp each larval brain by the ventral nerve cord for transfer onto the slide. To visualize progenitors and neurons from the central region of the outer proliferation center, Lamina or lobula plug, ensure that the ventral nerve cord projects out over the lobes, place the larval brains onto the slide with the anterior side of the tissue facing up. To visualize cells belonging to the tips of the outer or inner proliferation centers, ensure that the ventral nerve cord projects out from under the lobes.Place the larval brains onto the slide with the posterior side of the tissue facing up. To visualize the crescent of neurons from the inner and outer proliferation centers in both the dorsal ventral and medial lateral axis, use a pair of sharp forceps or a tungsten needle to split the brain lobes down through the ventral nerve cord, starting from the cleavage point between the lobes. Reorient each lobe with the lateral side facing up.When the larval brains have been appropriately oriented, place a small drop of mounting media on either side of the brains. Place one cover slip onto each drop, and place a final cover slip over the brains so that the right and left edges rest on the other two cover slips, forming a cover slip bridge. Then use nail polish to seal the edges of the cover slip bridge to secure the mounted brains.After the last secondary antibody wash, perform a final wash with 400 microliters of PBS. Replace the PBS with three drops of fluorescent safe mounting medium to submerge the brains. Add a drop of mounting media to the left and right thirds of a glass microscope slide.Place a cover slip over each drop to build a cover slip bridge. Seal the outer edges of the right cover slip with nail polish and add a single drop of mounting media between the cover slips. Using forceps, gently transfer the brains to the slide with extra caution to prevent damaging the optic lobes.To visualize the cell bodies of the lamina and medulla neurons, use a tungsten needle to orient the brains in an anterior position with the antenna lobes protruding outward. To visualize neurons of the lobula complex, orient the brains in a posterior with the antennal lobes facing down against the slide position. To visualize all optic lobe neuropils in a single plane, orient the brains in a horizontal position, line up the brains in an anterior mount, then use a tungsten needle to rotate each brain 90 degrees upwards so that it sits on its ventral side, resting on the edge of the cover slip.When the adult brains have been appropriately oriented, place a final cover slip over the brains such that the right and left edges overlap with the other two cover slips to form a bridge, seal the slide with nail polish. Here is an image of a larval optic lobe in the anterior mounting orientation. In the anterior mounting orientation, the epithelium of the central louder proliferation center, medulla neuroblast and lamina neurons appear at the surface as bands of cells that wrap around the brain.Deeper into the brain, in the middle of the Z-stack, the main outer proliferation center epithelium and its respective neuroblast and neurons are visible. Additionally, the epithelium of the inner proliferation center and neurons of the lobula plug are visible in these intermediate slices. The deepest Z slices depict the other side of the brain where the posterior tips of the outer proliferation center are located.The superficial tip of the inner proliferation center is also present. Note that these would be the first structures visible if the optic lobe was mounted posteriorly. Here is an image from an optic lobe mounted on its side.At the surface of the lateral mount the lamina crescent is visible and the lobula plug crescent is located between its arms. The medulla neuronal crescent appears at a slightly deeper Z position. Here is an image of an adult optic lobe mounted in an anterior orientation.Since the medulla is located at the surface of the anterior mount, the medulla cortex is immediately visible. Cell bodies in the cortex project their arborizations into the neuropil, which can be visualized at an intermediate Z position. The lobula also appears at this level, oriented perpendicular to the medulla.At the deepest Z position, the final neuropil of the optic lobe, the lobula plate is visible. Note that the lobula plate would be the first structure visible in a posterior mount. Here is an image of an adult optic lobe mounted in a horizontal orientation.When the brain is flipped 90 degrees on its side to a horizontal position, all of the neuropils and cortices of the optic lobe are visible in a single plane. When performing this protocol, the most important thing to remember is to keep the brain tissue submerged in solution throughout the protocol. If the brains are exposed to air, the quality of the stain and, therefore, the final images will be significantly reduced.An understanding of how mounting orientation affects optic lobe visualization is important for live imaging. Larval and adult brains can be cultured and imaged over several days to follow cell divisions or changes in your own morphology. Here, the mounting orientation is critical, as the cell types of interest must be close to the cover slip for optimal detection of the fluorescent signal in vivo.

dissection-immunohistochemistry-mounting-larval-adult-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Dissection of Larval Zebrafish Gonadal Tissue

Although wild zebrafish possess a ZZ/ZW sex-determination system, domesticated zebrafish have lost the sex chromosome. They utilize a polygenic sex determination system, where several genes distributed throughout the genome collectively determine the sex identities of individual fish. Currently, the genes involved in regulating gonad development and how they work remain elusive. Normally, isolating gonadal tissue is the first step to examine the sex developmental processes. Here, we present a procedure to isolate gonadal tissue from 17 dpf (days post fertilization) and 25 dpf zebrafish larvae. The isolated gonadal tissue may be subsequently examined by morphology and gene expression profiling.

Here, we present a protocol for isolating gonadal tissue of larval zebrafish, which will facilitate investigations of zebrafish sex differentiation and maintenance.

Although wild zebrafish possess a ZZ/ZW sex-determination system, domesticated zebrafish have lost the sex chromosome. They utilize a polygenic sex ...

Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains

Nervous system development involves a sequential series of events that are coordinated by several signaling pathways and regulatory networks. Many of the proteins involved in these pathways are evolutionarily conserved between mammals and other eukaryotes, such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, suggesting that similar organizing principles exist during the development of these organisms. Importantly, Drosophila has been used extensively to identify cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating processes that are required in mammals including neurogenesis, differentiation, axonal guidance, and synaptogenesis. Flies have also been used successfully to model a variety of human neurodevelopmental diseases. Here we describe a protocol for the step-by-step microdissection, fixation, and immunofluorescent localization of proteins within the adult Drosophila brain. This protocol focuses on two example neuronal populations, mushroom body neurons and retinal photoreceptors, and includes optional steps to trace individual mushroom body neurons using Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) technique. Example data from both wild-type and mutant brains are shown along with a brief description of a scoring criteria for axonal guidance defects. While this protocol highlights two well-established antibodies for investigating the morphology of mushroom body and photoreceptor neurons, other Drosophila brain regions and the localization of proteins within other brain regions can also be investigated using this protocol.

Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains

This protocol describes the dissection and immunostaining of adult Drosophila melanogaster brain tissues. Specifically, this protocol highlights the use of Drosophila mushroom body and photoreceptor neurons as example neuronal subsets that can be accurately used to uncover general principles underlying many aspects of neuronal development.

Nervous system development involves a sequential series of events that are coordinated by several signaling pathways and regulatory networks. Many of the ...

Dissection and Staining of Drosophila Pupal Ovaries

Unlike adult Drosophila ovaries, pupal ovaries are relatively difficult to access and examine due to their small size, translucence, and encasing within a pupal case. The challenge of dissecting pupal ovaries also lies in their physical location within the pupa: the ovaries are surrounded by fat body cells inside the pupal abdomen, and these fat cells must be removed to allow for proper antibody staining. To overcome these challenges, this protocol utilizes customized Pasteur pipets to extract fat body cells from the pupal abdomen. Moreover, a chambered coverglass is used in place of a microcentrifuge tube during the staining process to improve visibility of the pupae. However, despite these and other advantages of the tools used in this protocol, successful execution of these techniques may still involve several days of practice due to the small size of pupal ovaries. The techniques outlined in this protocol could be applied to time course experiments in which ovaries are analyzed at various stages of pupal development.

Dissection and Staining of Drosophila Pupal Ovaries

The Drosophila ovary is an excellent model system for studying stem cell niche development. Though methods for dissecting larval and adult ovaries have been published, pupal ovary dissections require different techniques that have not been published in detail. Here we outline a protocol for dissecting, staining, and mounting pupal ovaries.

Unlike adult Drosophila ovaries, pupal ovaries are relatively difficult to access and examine due to their small size, translucence, and encasing within a ...

Visualization of Tangential Cell Migration in the Developing Chick Optic Tectum

Time-lapse imaging is a powerful method to analyze migrating cell behavior. After fluorescent cell labeling, the movement of the labeled cells in culture can be recorded under video microscopy. For analyzing cell migration in the developing brain, slice culture is commonly used to observe cell migration parallel to the slice section, such as radial cell migration. However, limited information can be obtained from the slice culture method to analyze cell migration perpendicular to the slice section, such as tangential cell migration. Here, we present the protocols for time-lapse imaging to visualize tangential cell migration in the developing chick optic tectum. A combination of cell labeling by electroporation in ovo and a subsequent flat-mount culture on the cell culture insert enables detection of migrating cell movement in the horizontal plane. Moreover, our method facilitates detection of both individual cell behavior and the collective action of a group of cells in the long term. This method can potentially be applied to detect the sequential change of the fluorescent-labeled micro-structure, including the axonal elongation in the neural tissue or cell displacement in the non-neural tissue.

We describe the methods for fluorescent labeling of tangentially migrating cells by electroporation, and for time-lapse imaging of the labeled cell movement in a flat-mount culture in order to visualize migrating cell behavior in the developing chick optic tectum.

Time-lapse imaging is a powerful method to analyze migrating cell behavior. After fluorescent cell labeling, the movement of the labeled cells in culture ...

Dissection of the Drosophila Pupal Retina for Immunohistochemistry, Western Analysis, and RNA Isolation

The Drosophila pupal retina provides an excellent model system for the study of morphogenetic processes during development. In this paper, we present a reliable protocol for the dissection of the delicate Drosophila pupal retina. Our surgical approach utilizes readily-available microdissection tools to open pupae and precisely extract eye-brain complexes. These can be fixed, subjected to immunohistochemistry, and retinas then mounted onto microscope slides and imaged if the goal is to detect cellular or subcellular structures. Alternatively, unfixed retinas can be isolated from brain tissue, lysed in appropriate buffers and utilized for protein gel electrophoresis or mRNA extraction (to assess protein or gene expression, respectively). Significant practice and patience may be required to master the microdissection protocol described, but once mastered, the protocol enables relatively quick isolation of mainly undamaged retinas.

Dissection of the Drosophila Pupal Retina for Immunohistochemistry, Western Analysis, and RNA Isolation

This paper presents a surgical method for dissecting Drosophila pupal retinas along with protocols for the processing of tissue for immunohistochemistry, western analysis, and RNA-extraction.&#160;

The Drosophila pupal retina provides an excellent model system for the study of morphogenetic processes during development. In this paper, we present a ...

Visualization and Analysis of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries using Whole-mount Immunohistochemistry and 3D Reconstruction

Improper formation or remodeling of the pharyngeal arch arteries (PAAs) 3, 4, and 6 contribute to some of the most severe forms of congenital heart disease. To study the formation of PAAs, we developed a protocol using whole-mount immunofluorescence coupled with benzyl alcohol/benzyl benzoate (BABB) tissue clearing, and confocal microscopy. This allows for the visualization of the pharyngeal arch endothelium at a fine cellular resolution as well as the 3D connectivity of the vasculature. Using software, we have established a protocol to quantify the number of endothelial cells (ECs) in PAAs, as well as the number of ECs within the vascular plexus surrounding the PAAs within pharyngeal arches 3, 4, and 6. When applied to the whole embryo, this methodology provides a comprehensive visualization and quantitative analysis of embryonic vasculature.

Here, we describe a protocol to visualize and analyze the pharyngeal arch arteries 3, 4, and 6 of mouse embryos using whole-mount immunofluorescence, tissue clearing, confocal microscopy, and 3D reconstruction.

Improper formation or remodeling of the pharyngeal arch arteries (PAAs) 3, 4, and 6 contribute to some of the most severe forms of congenital heart ...

Preparation of Drosophila Larval and Pupal Testes for Analysis of Cell Division in Live, Intact Tissue

Experimental analysis of cells dividing in living, intact tissues and organs is essential to our understanding of how cell division integrates with development, tissue homeostasis, and disease processes. Drosophila spermatocytes undergoing meiosis are ideal for this analysis because (1) whole Drosophila testes containing spermatocytes are relatively easy to prepare for microscopy, (2) the spermatocytes&#8217; large size makes them well suited for high resolution imaging, and (3) powerful Drosophila genetic tools can be integrated with in vivo analysis. Here, we present a readily accessible protocol for the preparation of whole testes from Drosophila third instar larvae and early pupae. We describe how to identify meiotic spermatocytes in prepared whole testes and how to image them live by time-lapse microscopy. Protocols for fixation and immunostaining whole testes are also provided. The use of larval testes has several advantages over available protocols that use adult testes for spermatocyte analysis. Most importantly, larval testes are smaller and less crowded with cells than adult testes, and this greatly facilitates high resolution imaging of spermatocytes. To demonstrate these advantages and the applications of the protocols, we present results showing the redistribution of the endoplasmic reticulum with respect to spindle microtubules during cell division in a single spermatocyte imaged by time-lapse confocal microscopy. The protocols can be combined with expression of any number of fluorescently tagged proteins or organelle markers, as well as gene mutations and other genetic tools, making this approach especially powerful for analysis of cell division mechanisms in the physiological context of whole tissues and organs.

Preparation of Drosophila Larval and Pupal Testes for Analysis of Cell Division in Live, Intact Tissue

The goal of this protocol is to analyze cell division in intact tissue by live and fixed cell microscopy using Drosophila meiotic spermatocytes. The protocol demonstrates how to isolate whole, intact testes from Drosophila larvae and early pupae, and how to process and mount them for microscopy.

Experimental analysis of cells dividing in living, intact tissues and organs is essential to our understanding of how cell division integrates with ...

A Protocol for Immunohistochemistry and RNA In-situ Distribution within Early Drosophila Embryo

Calcium induced calcium release signaling (CICR) plays a critical role in many biological processes. Every cellular activity from cell proliferation and apoptosis, development and ageing, to neuronal synaptic plasticity and regeneration have been associated with Ryanodine receptors (RyRs). Despite the importance of calcium signaling, the exact mechanism of its function in early development is unclear. As an organism with a short gestational period, the embryos of Drosophila melanogaster are prime study subjects for investigating the distribution and localization of CICR associated proteins and their regulators during development. However, because of their lipid-rich embryos and chitin-rich chorion, their utility is limited by the difficulty of mounting embryos on glass surfaces. In this work, we introduce a practical protocol that significantly enhances the attachment of Drosophila embryo onto slides and detail methods for successful histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, and in-situ hybridization. The chrome alum gelatin slide-coating method and embryo pre-embedding method dramatically increases the yield in studying Drosophila embryo protein and RNA expression. To demonstrate this approach, we studied DmFKBP12/Calstabin, a well-known regulator of RyR during early embryonic development of Drosophila melanogaster. We identified DmFKBP12 in as early as the syncytial blastoderm stage and report the dynamic expression pattern of DmFKBP12 during development: initially as an evenly distributed protein in the syncytial blastoderm, then preliminarily localizing to the basement layer of the cortex during cellular blastoderm, before distributing in the primitive neuronal and digestion architecture during the three-gem layer phase in early gastrulation. This distribution may explain the critical role RyR plays in the vital organ systems that originate in from these layers: the suboesophageal and supraesophageal ganglion, ventral nervous system, and musculoskeletal system.

A Protocol for Immunohistochemistry and RNA In-situ Distribution within Early Drosophila Embryo

Here, we describe a protocol for detection and localization of Drosophila embryo protein and RNA from collection to pre-embedding and embedding, immunostaining, and mRNA in situ hybridization.

Calcium induced calcium release signaling (CICR) plays a critical role in many biological processes. Every cellular activity from cell proliferation and ...

Dissection and Live-Imaging of the Late Embryonic Drosophila Gonad

The Drosophila melanogaster male embryonic gonad is an advantageous model to study various aspects of developmental biology including, but not limited to, germ cell development, piRNA biology, and niche formation. Here, we present a dissection technique to live-image the gonad ex vivo during a period when in vivo live-imaging is highly ineffective. This protocol outlines how to transfer embryos to an imaging dish, choose appropriately-staged male embryos, and dissect the gonad from its surrounding tissue while still maintaining its structural integrity. Following dissection, gonads can be imaged using a confocal microscope to visualize dynamic cellular processes. The dissection procedure requires precise timing and dexterity, but we provide insight on how to prevent common mistakes and how to overcome these challenges. To our knowledge this is the first dissection protocol for the Drosophila embryonic gonad, and will permit live-imaging during an otherwise inaccessible window of time. This technique can be combined with pharmacological or cell-type specific transgenic manipulations to study any dynamic processes occurring within or between the&#160;cells in their natural gonadal environment.

Dissection and Live-Imaging of the Late Embryonic Drosophila Gonad

Here, we provide a dissection protocol required to live-image the late embryonic Drosophila male gonad. This protocol will permit observation of dynamic cellular processes under normal conditions or after transgenic or pharmacological manipulation.

The Drosophila melanogaster male embryonic gonad is an advantageous model to study various aspects of developmental biology including, but not limited to, ...

Stab Wound Injury Model of the Adult Optic Tectum Using Zebrafish and Medaka for the Comparative Analysis of Regenerative Capacity

While zebrafish have a superior capacity to regenerate their central nervous system (CNS), medaka has a lower CNS regenerative capacity. A brain injury model was developed in the adult optic tectum of zebrafish and medaka and comparative histological and molecular analyses were performed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms regulating the high regenerative capacity of this tissue across these fish species. Here a stab wound injury model is presented for the adult optic tectum using a needle and histological analyses for proliferation and differentiation of the neural stem cells (NSCs). A needle was manually inserted into the central region of the optic tectum, and then the fish were intracardially perfused, and their brains were dissected. These tissues were then cryosectioned and evaluated using immunostaining against the appropriate NSC proliferation and differentiation markers. This tectum injury model provides robust and reproducible results in both zebrafish and medaka, allowing for comparing NSC responses after injury. This method is available for small teleosts, including zebrafish, medaka, and African killifish, and enables us to compare their regenerative capacity and investigate unique molecular mechanisms.

A mechanical brain injury model in the adult zebrafish is described to investigate the molecular mechanisms regulating their high regenerative capacity. The method explains to create a stab wound injury in the optic tectum of multiple species of small fish to evaluate the regenerative responses using fluorescent immunostaining.

While zebrafish have a superior capacity to regenerate their central nervous system (CNS), medaka has a lower CNS regenerative capacity. A brain injury ...