Name: optogenetic activation of afferent pathways in brain slices and modulation of responses by volatile anesthetics
Uploaded: 2020-07-23T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics at JoVE.com

De auteurs bedanken Bryan Krause voor technische ondersteuning en begeleiding bij dit project.
Dit werk werd ondersteund door de International Anesthesia Research Society (IMRA tot AR), National Institutes of Health (R01 GM109086 tot MIB) en het Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, VS.

Alle procedures met dieren die in dit protocol worden beschreven, zijn goedgekeurd door de University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Muizen fokken om fluorescerend reportereiwit tot expressie te brengen in interneuronsubpopulaties
<ol><li>Koppel homozyogische, Cre-afhankelijke tdTomato mannelijke muis met homozygote SOM-Cre vrouwelijke of homozygote PV-Cre vrouwelijke muis. OPMERKING: Andere specifieke neuronale populaties kunne...

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In dit manuscript wordt een protocol beschreven voor het evalueren van intra- en extracellulaire responsen op selectief geactiveerde afferente routes in ex vivo hersenplakken.
Het gebruik van optogenetische hulpmiddelen en parallelle opnameschema's stelt onderzoekers in staat om reacties van lokale populaties op afferente inputs uit verre hersengebieden te onderzoeken, terwijl ze tegelijkertijd registreren van gerichte populaties van interneuronen. Het gebruik van optogenetische technologie ma...

Vluchtige anesthetica worden al meer dan een eeuw alomtegenwoordig gebruikt in verschillende klinische en academische omgevingen. Verschillende klassen van anesthetica hebben unieke, vaak niet-overlappende moleculaire doelwitten 1,2,3, maar bijna allemaal produceren ze bewusteloosheid. Hoewel hun gedragseffecten vrij voorspelbaar zijn, zijn de mechanismen waarmee anesthetica bewustzijnsverlies veroorzaken grotendeels onbekend. Anesthetica kunnen uiteindelijk zowel het niveau als de inhoud van het bewustzijn beïnvloeden via acties op corticothalamische circuits, waardoor de integratie van informatie in de corticale hiërarchie wordt verstoord 4,5,6,7,8,9. Meer in het algemeen kan modulatie van corticothalamische circuits een rol spelen bij experimenteel10 of farmacologisch11 veranderde bewustzijnstoestanden, en kan ook betrokken zijn bij slaap12 en bij pathofysiologische bewustzijnsstoornissen13,14.
De ongrijpbaarheid van de mechanismen die ten grondslag liggen aan verlies en terugkeer van bewustzijn tijdens anesthesie kan gedeeltelijk worden toegeschreven aan niet-lineaire, synergetische acties van anesthetica op cellulair, netwerk- en systeemniveau15. Isofluraan onderdrukt bijvoorbeeld de activiteit in de geselecteerde hersengebieden 16,17,18, schaadt de connectiviteit tussen verre hersengebieden 19,20,21,22,23 en vermindert synaptische reacties op een pathway-specifieke manier 24,25 . Welke effecten van anesthetica, van moleculair tot systeemniveau, noodzakelijk of voldoende zijn om bewustzijnsverlies te bewerkstelligen, blijft onduidelijk. Naast inhoudelijke klinische onderzoeken van bewustzijn met behulp van niet-invasieve technieken 19,20,26, is het belangrijk dat experimentalisten proberen de verschillende cellulaire en netwerkinteracties te ontwarren die de bewuste ervaring dienen.
Door de complexe interacties in de intacte hersenen te vereenvoudigen, maken ex vivo hersensegmenten de studie van geïsoleerde componenten van de dynamische systemen van de hersenen mogelijk9. Een gereduceerde plakbereiding combineert de voordelen van relatief intacte anatomische structuren van lokale neurale circuits met de veelzijdigheid van in vitro manipulaties. Tot voor kort hebben methodologische beperkingen echter de studie van synaptische en circuiteigenschappen van langeafstandsinputs in hersensegmenten27,28 uitgesloten; het kronkelige pad van corticothalamische vezelkanalen maakte activering van onafhankelijke afferente paden vrijwel onmogelijk door elektrische stimulatie.
Het onderzoeken van de effecten van anesthetica op de hersenschijfpreparaten brengt extra uitdagingen met zich mee. Bij afwezigheid van een intacte ademhalings- en bloedsomloop moeten anesthetica worden aangebracht en moeten concentraties zorgvuldig worden afgestemd op de geschatte concentraties op de effectplaats. Voor veel intraveneuze anesthetica maakt de langzame snelheid van equilibratie in het weefsel traditionele farmacologische onderzoeken bewerkelijk29,30. Het onderzoeken van de effecten van vluchtige gasanesthetica in ex vivo preparaten is beter handelbaar, maar brengt ook uitdagingen met zich mee. Deze omvatten het omzetten van geïnhaleerde partiële drukdoses naar waterige concentraties en de noodzaak van een aangepast afgiftesysteem van het geneesmiddel aan het weefsel via kunstmatige cerebrale spinale vloeistof31.
Hier worden methoden beschreven waarmee onderzoekers kunnen profiteren van de goed gedocumenteerde fysisch-chemische eigenschappen van het vluchtige anestheticum isofluraan voor medicijnafgifte aan ex vivo hersenplakken, pathway- en laagspecifieke inputs activeren naar een corticale interessegebied met een hoge spatiotemporale resolutie, en gelijktijdige laminaire opnames en gerichte patchklemopnamen van geselecteerde populaties van neuronen kunnen uitvoeren. Gecombineerd stellen deze procedures onderzoekers in staat om vluchtige anestheticum-geïnduceerde veranderingen in verschillende waarneembare elektrofysiologische responseigenschappen te meten, van synaptisch tot lokaal netwerkniveau.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2.5x broadfield objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>MPLFLN2.5X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40x water immersion objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>LUMPLFLN40XW</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% O2/5% CO2 mixture</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>Z02OX95R2003045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A16 probe</td>
			<td>NeuroNexus</td>
			<td>A16x1-2mm-100-177-A16</td>
			<td>16-channel probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AAV2-hSyn-hChR2(H134R)-EYFP</td>
			<td>Karl Deisseroth Lab, UNC Vector Core</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthetic gas monitor (POET II)</td>
			<td>Criticare</td>
			<td>602-3A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ATP, Magnesium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9187</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6.Cg-Gt(ROSA)26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato)Hze/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>007914</td>
			<td>Cre-dependent tdTomato mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6;129P2-Pvalbtm1(cre)Arbr/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>008069</td>
			<td>PV-Cre mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Belly Dancer Shaker</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1210H86-TS</td>
			<td>for equilibration of sealed gas bags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Betadine solution</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bleach</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for silver chloriding patch clamp electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bupivicaine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSC20010</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass (patch clamp recordings)</td>
			<td>King Precision Glass, Inc.</td>
			<td>KG-33</td>
			<td>Borosilicate, ID: 1.1mm, OD: 1.7mm, Length: 90.0mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass (viral injections)</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-000-203-G/X</td>
			<td>3.5&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control of junior micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>SM8</td>
			<td>for control of junior micromanipulator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control of manipulators and shifting table</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>SM7</td>
			<td>for control of multichannel electrode and shifting table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digidata 1440A + Clampex 10</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>1440A</td>
			<td>Digitizer and software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-3603 tubing</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14171208</td>
			<td>for delivery of 95% O2/5% CO2 gas mixture to incubation chamber + application of pressure during patch clamping</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSE57060</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ERP-27 EEG Reference/Patch Panel</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filling needle</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>50821912</td>
			<td>for filling patch clamp pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter cube for imaging EYFP</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>U-MRFPHQ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>09801E</td>
			<td>lay over slice template during preparation of tissue block</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flaming/Brown micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-1000</td>
			<td>2.5x2.5 Box filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gas dispersion tube</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>CLS3953312C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe (100 mL)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z314390</td>
			<td>for filling gas-sealed bags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gluconic Acid, Potassium Salt (K-gluconate)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSG37020</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSG32040</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GTP, Sodium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8877</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headstage-probe adaptor</td>
			<td>NeuroNexus</td>
			<td>A16-OM16</td>
			<td>adaptor to connect 16-channel probe to headstage input</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic Forceps</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>76192-096</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSH75030</td>
			<td>ACSF,intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HS-16 Headstage</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-893-1389</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol (70%)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>101223-746</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Junior micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>210-100 000 0090-R</td>
			<td>for manipulation of patch clamp electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED Light Source Control Module</td>
			<td>Mightex</td>
			<td>BLS-PL02_US</td>
			<td>optogenetic light source control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lidocaine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lynx-8 Amplifier</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lynx-8 Power Supply</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSM24300</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mCherry, Texas Red filter cube</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>49008</td>
			<td>for imaging tdTomato fluorescent reporter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Meloxicam</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette holder</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC9044962</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsyringe pump</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>UMP3-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mineral oil</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MultiClamp 700A</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices/Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>700A</td>
			<td>Amplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrogen (for air table)</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>NI200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon mesh</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>501460083</td>
			<td>stretched over horseshoe of flattened platinum wire, slice rest on top of this during recordings</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon, cut from pantyhose</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>small piece to create slice platform in incubation chamber, single fibers to create platinum harp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic ointment</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC1697520</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>307</td>
			<td>For transferring tissue to rig</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum wire</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>BT124000</td>
			<td>2 cm, flattened, to make platinum harp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polygon400</td>
			<td>Mightex</td>
			<td>DSI-E-0470-0617-000</td>
			<td>optogenetic light delivery system, comes with PolyScan2 software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSP41000</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Phosphate (KH2PO4)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSP41200</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blade</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-640</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sapphire blade (for vibratome)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>100492-502</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.</td>
			<td>sc-361445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sealed gas bag</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>109236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shifting table for microscope</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>380FMU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate (HCO3-)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSS22060</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSS23020</td>
			<td>ACSF, intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ssttm2.1(cre)Zjh/J (SOM-IRES-Cre)</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>013044</td>
			<td>SOM-Cre mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic instrument</td>
			<td>Kopf</td>
			<td>Model 902</td>
			<td>Dual Small Animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Super glue</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>886833</td>
			<td>to fix tissue block to specimen stage during slice preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical drill</td>
			<td>RAM Products Inc.</td>
			<td>DIGITALMICROTORQUE</td>
			<td>Microtorque II</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe (1 mL) with LuerLock tip</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>309628</td>
			<td>for application of pressure during patch clamping</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe (1 mL) with slip tip</td>
			<td>WW Grainger, Inc.</td>
			<td>19G384</td>
			<td>for filling patch clamp pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Filters</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>66064-414</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Upright microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX51</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibrating microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>VT1000S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wypall towels</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>19-042-427</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optogenetic activation of afferent pathways in brain slices and modulation of responses by volatile anesthetics

Anesthetica beïnvloeden het bewustzijn deels via hun acties op thalamocorticale circuits. De mate waarin vluchtige anesthetica verschillende cellulaire en netwerkcomponenten van deze circuits beïnvloeden, blijft echter onduidelijk. Ex vivo hersensegmenten bieden een middel waarmee onderzoekers discrete componenten van complexe netwerken kunnen onderzoeken en potentiële mechanismen kunnen ontwarren die ten grondslag liggen aan de effecten van vluchtige anesthetica op opgeroepen reacties. Om potentiële celtype- en pathway-specifieke medicijneffecten in hersensegmenten te isoleren, moeten onderzoekers in staat zijn om onafhankelijk afferente vezelroutes te activeren, niet-overlappende populaties van cellen te identificeren en vluchtige anesthetica toe te passen op het weefsel in een waterige oplossing. In dit protocol worden methoden beschreven om optogenetisch opgewekte reacties op twee onafhankelijke afferente paden naar neocortex in ex vivo hersenplakken te meten. Extracellulaire responsen worden geregistreerd op assay-netwerkactiviteit en gerichte whole-cell patch clamp-opnames worden uitgevoerd in somatostatine- en parvalbumine-positieve interneuronen. Levering van fysiologisch relevante concentraties isofluraan via kunstmatige cerebrale spinale vloeistof om cellulaire en netwerkresponsen te moduleren wordt beschreven.

Een tijdlijn van stappen die in het protocol worden beschreven, wordt weergegeven in figuur 1. Corticale inputs afkomstig van corticale gebieden van hogere orde of van niet-primaire thalamische kernen hebben gedeeltelijk overlappende terminale velden in laag 1 van niet-primaire visuele cortex24. Om onafhankelijke thalamocorticale of corticocorticale afferente routes te isoleren, werd een virale vector met ChR2 en een eYFP fluorescerende reporter geïnjecteerd in Po of...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics at JoVE.com

Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics

Ex vivo hersenplakken kunnen worden gebruikt om de effecten van vluchtige anesthetica op opgeroepen reacties op afferente inputs te bestuderen. Optogenetica wordt gebruikt om zelfstandig thalamocorticale en corticocorticale afferente stoffen te activeren voor niet-primaire neocortex, en synaptische en netwerkresponsen worden gemoduleerd met isofluraan.

Optogenetische activering van afferente paden in hersenplakken en modulatie van reacties door vluchtige anesthetica

Anesthetics influence consciousness in part via their actions on thalamocortical circuits. However, the extent to which volatile anesthetics affect ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Imaging Calcium Responses in GFP-tagged Neurons of Hypothalamic Mouse Brain Slices

Imaging Calcium Reacties in GFP-gelabelde neuronen van de hypothalamus Mouse Brain Slices

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Dubbele Elektrofysiologische Opnames van synaptisch-opgeroepen astrogliale en Neuronale responsen bij acute hippocampus Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

Optogenetic Activation of Zebrafish Somatosensory Neurons using ChEF-tdTomato

Optogenetic Activering van zebravis Somatosensorische Neuronen met chef-tdTomato

Larval  zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function  of simple neural circuits. Due to their  external fertilization, ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

In vivo optogenetische Stimulatie van de knaagdieren centrale zenuwstelsel

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Ex Vivo optogenetische Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated ...

Whole-cell Currents Induced by Puff Application of GABA in Brain Slices

Geheel-cel stromingen geïnduceerd door Puff toepassing van GABA in de hersenen segmenten

Pharmacological administration is commonly used when conducting whole-cell patch-clamp recording in brain slices. One of the best methods of drug ...

Recording and Modulation of Epileptiform Activity in Rodent Brain Slices Coupled to Microelectrode Arrays

Opname en moduleren van Epileptiform activiteit in knaagdier hersenen plakjes gekoppeld aan micro-elektrode Arrays

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) ...

Real-time In Vitro Monitoring of Odorant Receptor Activation by an Odorant in the Vapor Phase

Real-Time In Vitro Monitoring van Odorant Receptor activering door een Odorant in de damp-fase

Olfactory perception begins with the interaction of odorants with odorant receptors (OR) expressed by olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). Odor recognition ...

In Vivo Intracerebral Stereotaxic Injections for Optogenetic Stimulation of Long-Range Inputs in Mouse Brain Slices

In vivo intracerebrale Stereotaxic injecties voor Optogenetische stimulatie van lange-afstand ingangen in muis hersenen segmenten

Knowledge of cell-type specific synaptic connectivity is a crucial prerequisite for understanding brain-wide neuronal circuits. The functional ...

Non-Invasive Modulation and Robotic Mapping of Motor Cortex in the Developing Brain

Niet-invasieve modulatie en Robotic mapping van de motorische cortex in de ontwikkelende hersenen

Mapping the motor cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has potential to interrogate motor cortex physiology and plasticity but carries ...