Name: tools for the real-time assessment of a pseudomonas aeruginosa infection model
Uploaded: 2021-04-06T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Tools for the Real-Time Assessment of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection Model at JoVE.com

S.E.D is supported by start-up funds provided by the Department of Molecular&#160;Medicine, The University of South Florida, as well as a CFF research grant (DARCH19G0) the N.I.H (5R21AI147654 - 02 (PI, Chen)) and the USF Institute on Microbiomes. We thank the Whiteley lab for ongoing collaboration involving data sets related to this manuscript. We thank Dr. Charles Szekeres for facilitating FACS sorting. Figures were created by A.D.G and S.E.D using Biorender.com.

1. Prepare synthetic cystic fibrosis medium (SCFM2)
NOTE: Preparation of SCFM2 comprises three main stages outlined below (Figure 2). For full details and references, see9,10,12.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2...

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This work has introduced methodologies that can be combined to study bacterial aggregate populations in the presence and absence of antibiotic treatment. High-resolution CLSM allows the visualization of changes in aggregate biomass and the structural orientation of aggregates over real time when exposed to antibiotics. In addition, physical and structural features of the biomass that remain after treatment with antibiotics can be quantified, with the goal to correlate these observations with future gene expression studie...

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa) is an opportunistic pathogen that establishes chronic infections in immune-compromised individuals. For those with the genetic disease cystic fibrosis&#160;(CF), these infections can span the course of a lifetime. CF causes the buildup of a viscous, nutrient-rich sputum in the airways, which becomes colonized by a variety of microbial pathogens over time. Pa is one of the most prevalent CF pathogens, colonizing the airways in early childhood and establishing difficult-to-treat infections1. Pa remains a significant clinical problem and is considered a leading cause of mortality in those with CF, despite improved therapy regimens in recent years2,3. This persistence phenotype and increasing antibiotic tolerance have earned Pa a place in a group of pathogens identified by both the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) as research priorities for the development of new therapeutic strategies-the ESKAPE pathogens4.
Like other ESKAPE pathogens, acquired antibiotic resistance is common in Pa, but there are also many intrinsic properties that contribute to Pa antimicrobial tolerance. Among these is the ability of Pa to form aggregates-highly dense clusters of ~10-1,000 cells, which can be observed in multiple infections, including CF patient sputum5,6. Similar to Pa studied in other biofilm systems, Pa aggregates display clinically relevant phenotypes such as increased resistance to antibiotics and activation of cell-cell communication (quorum sensing (QS)). For example, aggregates of Pa have been shown to use QS-regulated behaviors to combat other microbes as well as tolerate antimicrobial treatments such as the production of pyocyanin7. The ability to study such behaviors offers an exciting insight into bacterial ecosystems in an environment similar to the one in which they exist in the human body.
One of the biggest challenges to studying how Pa aggregates respond to the changing sputum environment is the lack of nutritionally relevant and robust systems that promote aggregate formation. Much of what is known about Pa has been discovered using in vitro systems in which cells grow planktonically or in a characteristic surface-attached, &#34;mushroom&#34; architecture that has not been observed in vivo8. While classical biofilm growth models, such as flow cells or solid agar, have yielded extensive and valuable knowledge about bacterial behaviors and mechanisms of antibiotic tolerance, these findings do not always translate in vivo. Many in vitro models have a limited ability to mimic the growth environment of the human infection site, necessitating costly in vivo studies. In turn, many in vivo models lack the flexibility and resolution afforded by in vitro techniques.
Synthetic cystic fibrosis sputum (SCFM2) is designed to provide an environment for Pa growth similar to that experienced during chronic infection in the CF lung. SCFM2 includes nutritional sources identified in expectorated CF sputa in addition to mucin, lipids, and DNA. Pa growth in SCFM2 requires a near identical gene set to that required for growth in actual sputum and supports natural Pa aggregate formation9,10. After inoculation, planktonic cells form aggregates that increase in size through expansion. Individual cells (referred to as migrants) are released from aggregates, migrate to uncolonized areas, and form new aggregates10. This life history can be observed using CLSM and image analysis at the resolution of a single cell. Aggregates of Pa formed in SCFM2 are of similar sizes to those observed in the CF lung10. This model allows the observation of multiple aggregates of varying size in real-time and in three dimensions at the micron scale. Time-lapse microscopy allows the tracking of thousands (~50,000) of aggregates in one experiment. The use of image analysis software allows the quantification of aggregate phenotypes from micrographs, including aggregate volume, surface area, and position in three dimensions to the nearest 0.1 &#956;m, both at the individual aggregate and population levels. Having the ability to group aggregates by phenotype and position allows the differentiation of aggregates at different developmental stages with precision, as well as their response to a changing microenvironment6,11.
The application of SCFM2 to study Pa aggregates in low volume and high-throughput assays make it a flexible, cost-effective model. As a defined medium, SCFM2 offers uniformity and reproducibility across multiple platforms, providing a nutritionally and physically relevant method to study Pa aggregates in vitro9. Applications include its use in combination with CLSM to observe spatial organization and antibiotic tolerance at high resolution (as described in this methods paper). The ability to perform experiments that provide real-time, micron-scale data allows the study of intra-species and inter-species interactions as they may occur in vivo. For example, SCFM2 has previously been used to study the spatial dynamics of cell-cell communication in aggregate populations via a network of systems utilized by Pa to regulate multiple genes that contribute to virulence and pathogenesis6.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Graphical depiction of the main experimental steps. (A) SCFM2 is inoculated with Pa cells and allowed to form&#160;aggregates in a glass-bottomed culture dish. (B) Aggregates are transferred to the confocal microscope, and antibiotic is added. Depicted are three technical replicates (chambers 1-3) and a control well (4) of inoculated SCFM2 without antibiotic treatment. Aggregates are imaged using CLSM over the course of 18 h. (C) After the initial 18-h imaging, aggregates are treated with propidium iodide to visualize dead cells and imaged using CLSM (D) Aggregates with desired phenotype are separated from SCFM2 using FACS. Abbreviations: SCFM2 = synthetic cystic fibrosis sputum medium; Pa = Pseudomonas aeruginosa; CLSM = confocal laser scanning microscopy; FACS = fluorescence-activated cell sorting. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Here, the utility of SCFM2 to study the impact of antibiotic treatment on Pa aggregates in real time is demonstrated, followed by the use of a cell-sorting approach to isolate populations of aggregates with distinct phenotypes for downstream analysis (Figure 1).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Amino acids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alanine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>56-41-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arginine HCl</td>
			<td>MP</td>
			<td>1119-34-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Asparagine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>56-84-8</td>
			<td>Prepared in 0.5 M NaOH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cystine HCl</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>L06328</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamic acid HCl</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>138-15-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>56-40-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Histidine HCl H2O</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A17627</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoleucine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>73-32-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leucine</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A12311</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysine HCl</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>J62099</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methionine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>63-68-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ornithine HCl</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A12111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylalanine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>63-91-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proline</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A10199</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serine</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A11179</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Threonine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>72-19-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptophan</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>73-22-3</td>
			<td>Prepared in 0.2 M NaOH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tyrosine</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A11141</td>
			<td>Prepared in 1.0 M NaOH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Valine</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>72-18-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbenicillin</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>J6194903</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Day-of Stocks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2 * 2H2O</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>C79-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose (D-glucose)</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>50-99-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)</td>
			<td>Fisher (Avanti Polar Lipids)</td>
			<td>4235-95-4</td>
			<td>shake 15-20 min at 37 &#176;C to evaporate chloroform</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FeSO4 * 7H2O</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>7782-63-0</td>
			<td>this stock equals 1 mg/mL, MUST make fresh</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-lactic acid</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>L13242</td>
			<td>pH stock to 7 with NaOH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2 * 6H2O</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>7791-18-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-acetylglucosamine</td>
			<td>&#160;TCI</td>
			<td>A0092</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prepared solids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Porcine mucin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M1778-100G</td>
			<td>UV-sterilize</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salmon sperm DNA</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15632-011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stain</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Propidium iodide</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>J66764MC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salts</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K2SO4</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A13975</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>J64189</td>
			<td>add solid directly to buffered base</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KNO3</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>7757-79-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MOPS</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A12914</td>
			<td>add solid directly to buffered base</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>S271-500</td>
			<td>add solid directly to buffered base</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>RPI</td>
			<td>S23100-500.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4</td>
			<td>RPI</td>
			<td>S23120-500.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NH4Cl</td>
			<td>Acr<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62420/62420eq1v10.png" />s Organics</td>
			<td>12125-02-9</td>
			<td>add solid directly to buffered base</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Consumables</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conical tubes (15 mL)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>28-101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conical tubes (50 mL)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>28-106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Culture tubes w/air flow cap</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>21-129</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>35 mm four chamber glass-bottom dish</td>
			<td>CellVis</td>
			<td>NC0600518</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luria Bertani (LB) broth</td>
			<td>Genessee Scientific</td>
			<td>11-118</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>Fisher Bioreagents</td>
			<td>BP2944100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipet tips (p200)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>23-150RL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipet tips (p1000)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>23-165RL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serological pipets (5 mL)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>12-102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serological pipets (25 mL)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>12-106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serological pipets (50 mL)</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>12-107</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrapure water (RNAse/DNAse free); nanopure water</td>
			<td>Genessee Scientific</td>
			<td>18-194</td>
			<td>Nanopure water used for preparation of solutions in Table 1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringes (10&#160; mL)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>794412</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringes (50 mL)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.22 mm PES syringe filter</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>25-244</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PS cuvette semi-mico</td>
			<td>Olympus plastics</td>
			<td>91-408</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biorender</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To prepare the figures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FacsDiva6.1.3</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imaris</td>
			<td>Bitplane</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>version 9.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zen Black</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FacsAriallu</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LSM 880 confocal laser scanning microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

tools for the real-time assessment of a pseudomonas aeruginosa infection model

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa) is one of the most common opportunistic pathogens associated with cystic fibrosis (CF). Once Pa colonization is established, a large proportion of the infecting bacteria form biofilms within airway sputum. Pa biofilms isolated from CF sputum have been shown to grow in small, dense aggregates of ~10-1,000 cells that are spatially organized and exhibit clinically relevant phenotypes such as antimicrobial tolerance. One of the biggest challenges to studying how Pa aggregates respond to the changing sputum environment is the lack of nutritionally relevant and robust systems that promote aggregate formation. Using a synthetic CF sputum medium (SCFM2), the life history of Pa aggregates can be observed using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and image analysis at the resolution of a single cell. This in vitro system allows the observation of thousands of aggregates of varying size in real time, three dimensions, and at the micron scale. At the individual and population levels, having the ability to group aggregates by phenotype and position facilitates the observation of aggregates at different developmental stages and their response to changes in the microenvironment, such as antibiotic treatment, to be differentiated with precision.

This work details methods to observe Pa aggregates at a high resolution and in an environment similar to that of chronic infection of the CF lung9,10,12. SCFM2 provides an in vitro system that promotes natural aggregation of Pa cells in sizes similar to those observed during actual infection10. The adaptability of SCFM2 as a defined medium can be leveraged to approach many resea...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Tools for the Real-Time Assessment of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection Model at JoVE.com

Tools for the Real-Time Assessment of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection Model

Synthetic cystic fibrosis sputum medium (SCFM2) can be utilized in combination with both confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescence-activated cell sorting to observe bacterial aggregates at high resolution. This paper details methods to assess aggregate populations during antimicrobial treatment as a platform for future studies.

Tools for the Real-Time Assessment of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection Model

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa) is one of the most common opportunistic pathogens associated with cystic fibrosis (CF). Once Pa colonization is established, a ...

Our protocol provides a way for us to study antibiotic-resistant bacteria in a nutritional and physical environment similar to how they likely exist in vivo. One of the greatest advantages of this technique is the ability to capture high-resolution images and phenotypic data of bacteria in infection-relevant population sizes. That's aggregates of approximately 10 to 1, 000 cells.Demonstrating the procedure will be Alexa Gannon, a graduate research assistant from my laboratory. To begin, sterilize the mucin-containing medium under ultraviolet light for four hours. Transfer the UV-treated mucin into sterile 1.7 milliliter tubes under sterile conditions and store the tubes at minus 20 degrees Celsius.After preparing the buffered base, add the stock solution of mucin into the buffered base containing DNA as described in the text manuscript. On the evening before the experiment, inoculate five milliliters of LB broth with several colonies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 pMRP91 from an antibiotic containing LB agar plate and culture the bacteria overnight at 37 degrees Celsius with agitation at 250 revolutions per minute. The next morning, at least two hours before starting the experiment, turn on the confocal laser scanning microscope and open the incubation module in the associated imaging software.Dilute 500 microliters of the culture in five milliliters of fresh LB broth and incubate the bacterial suspension at 37 degrees Celsius and 250 revolutions per minute for 60 to 90 minutes. When the bacteria have entered the log phase, pellet the bacterial cells by centrifugation and wash the cells three times with filter sterilized PBS. After the last wash, resuspend the pellet in one milliliter of PBS.Measure the absorbance of the bacterial cell suspension at 600 nanometers to determine the culture volume required for an optical density of 0.05 in five milliliters of synthetic cystic fibrosis sputum medium two. Inoculate the calculated volume of bacterial cell suspension in the medium and vortex gently before adding one milliliter of cells to each chamber of a four-chambered optic culture dish, then incubate the bacteria for four hours under static conditions at 37 degrees Celsius. To image the Pseudomonas aeruginosa aggregates by confocal laser scanning microscope, at the end of the incubation, designate three wells of the culture plate as antibiotic treatment replicates and one well as the no treatment control and place the plate on the heated stage in the microscope.Select a 63X oil immersion objective and open the locate tab to identify the bacterial aggregates in the brightfield. Define an area for imaging within each well and use the positions module to store the area position. Set the excitation wavelength to 488 nanometers and the emission wavelength to 509 nanometers.In the acquisition module, select the Z-stack option to acquire the images and use the line averaging module to reduce the background fluorescence in the GFP channel within the total volume of the Z-stack images. Set the time series option to capture 60 slices in each well at 15-minute intervals for 18 hours and use the definite focus strategy to store a focal plane for each position that will be re-imaged at each time point throughout the experiment. 4-1/2 hours after setting up the imaging experiment, image each position to determine the aggregate biomass within each of the four wells before the addition of the antibiotic.After six hours, gently add antibiotic at two times below the minimum inhibitory concentration to the middle of each well just blow the air liquid interface and click start experiment to begin the post-antibiotic treatment imaging. To isolate the live cells, at the end of the 18-hour imaging period, label the bacteria in each well with the appropriate volume of propidium iodide according to the manufacturer's recommendations. At the end of the incubation, use an insulated container to transfer the plate to the flow cytometer and set the cytometer to detect GFP and propidium iodide using a 70 micron nozzle, then run one milliliter aliquots of each culture supernatant at the lowest flow rate to sort the viable GFP-positive and non-viable propidium iodide negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa aggregates.To quantify the aggregate dynamics, load the images into an appropriate image analysis software program and create histograms of the counts produced for the untreated control and antibiotic-treated cultures in the GFP channel to allow quantification of the background fluorescence. To ensure that the detected GFP voxels correlate to the bacterial biomass, define a GFP-positive voxel as greater than or equal to 1.5 times the GFP background count value. Produce the ISO surfaces for all of the remaining voxels and to detect individual aggregates, enable the split objects option and define the aggregates as objects.Use the vantage module to calculate the volume XYZ and sum of GFP voxels for each individual object. Export this data to an external statistical platform. Filter the exported data by size to define objects with volumes greater than or equal to five cubic micrometers.Remove any objects less than 0.5 cubic micrometers and use the vantage module to calculate the distance of each object in relation to other objects within each image. Alternatively, the distance can be calculated using the formula, then use the sum and average calculations to determine the total biomass in the average aggregate volume. Although multiple viable bacterial aggregates remain after four hours of antibiotic application, the total biomass of the aggregate populations within the antibiotic-treated cultures is significantly reduced compared to that of untreated cultures.Time series microscopy can be used to determine the spatial patterns between sensitive propidium iodide positive and tolerant GFP-positive aggregates after antibiotic treatment. By calculating how aggregates of different sizes contribute to the overall population, patterns of how aggregates respond to antibiotic treatment in relation to their size, shape, and position can be identified. After antibiotic treatment, viable and non-viable aggregates can be successfully separated according to their fluorescent signal expression.We hope this protocol inspires other researchers to study their organism of choice at a similar resolution. Our goal is to find common biological threads in these complex communities regardless of the infection site.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Co-culture Models of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms Grown on Live Human Airway Cells

Bacterial biofilms have been associated with a number of different human diseases, but biofilm development has generally been studied on non-living surfaces. In this paper, we describe protocols for forming Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms on human airway epithelial cells (CFBE cells) grown in culture. In the first method (termed the Static Co-culture Biofilm Model), P. aeruginosa is incubated with CFBE cells grown as confluent monolayers on standard tissue culture plates. Although the bacterium is quite toxic to epithelial cells, the addition of arginine delays the destruction of the monolayer long enough for biofilms to form on the CFBE cells. The second method (termed the Flow Cell Co-culture Biofilm Model), involves adaptation of a biofilm flow cell apparatus, which is often used in biofilm research, to accommodate a glass coverslip supporting a confluent monolayer of CFBE cells. This monolayer is inoculated with P. aeruginosa and a peristaltic pump then flows fresh medium across the cells. In both systems, bacterial biofilms form within 6-8 hours after inoculation. Visualization of the biofilm is enhanced by the use of P. aeruginosa strains constitutively expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP). The Static and Flow Cell Co-culture Biofilm assays are model systems for early P. aeruginosa infection of the Cystic Fibrosis (CF) lung, and these techniques allow different aspects of P. aeruginosa biofilm formation and virulence to be studied, including biofilm cytotoxicity, measurement of biofilm CFU, and staining and visualizing the biofilm.

Co-culture Models of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms Grown on Live Human Airway Cells

This paper describes different methods of growing Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms on cultured human airway epithelial cells. These protocols can be adapted to study different aspects of biofilm formation, including visualization of the biofilm, staining of the biofilm, measuring the colony forming units (CFU) of the biofilm, and studying biofilm cytotoxicity.

Bacterial biofilms have been associated with a number of different human diseases, but biofilm development has generally been studied on non-living ...

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biofilm in Flow Cells

Many microbial cells have the ability to form sessile microbial communities defined as biofilms that have altered physiological and pathological properties compared to free living microorganisms. Biofilms in nature are often difficult to investigate and reside under poorly defined conditions1. Using a transparent substratum it is possible to device a system where simple biofilms can be examined in a non-destructive way in real-time: here we demonstrate the assembly and operation of a flow cell model system, for in vitro 3D studies of microbial biofilms generating high reproducibility under well-defined conditions2,3.
The system consists of a flow cell that serves as growth chamber for the biofilm. The flow cell is supplied with nutrients and oxygen from a medium flask via a peristaltic pump and spent medium is collected in a waste container. This construction of the flow system allows a continuous supply of nutrients and administration of e.g. antibiotics with minimal disturbance of the cells grown in the flow chamber. Moreover, the flow conditions within the flow cell allow studies of biofilm exposed to shear stress. A bubble trapping device confines air bubbles from the tubing which otherwise could disrupt the biofilm structure in the flow cell.
The flow cell system is compatible with Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) and can thereby provide highly detailed 3D information about developing microbial biofilms. Cells in the biofilm can be labeled with fluorescent probes or proteins compatible with CLSM analysis. This enables online visualization and allows investigation of niches in the developing biofilm. Microbial interrelationship, investigation of antimicrobial agents or the expression of specific genes, are of the many experimental setups that can be investigated in the flow cell system.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biofilm in Flow Cells

Protocol describing the application of a flow cell system for growing and analyzing microbial biofilms for Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM).

Many microbial cells have the ability to form sessile microbial communities defined as biofilms that have altered physiological and pathological ...

RNA Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Colonizing the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections result in significant morbidity and mortality in hosts with compromised immune systems, such as patients with leukemia, severe burn wounds, or organ transplants1. In patients at high-risk for developing PA bloodstream infections, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the main reservoir for colonization2, but the mechanisms by which PA transitions from an asymptomatic colonizing microbe to an invasive, and often deadly, pathogen are unclear. Previously, we performed in vivo transcription profiling experiments by recovering PA mRNA from bacterial cells residing in the cecums of colonized mice 3 in order to identify changes in bacterial gene expression during alterations to the host&#x2019;s immune status.
As with any transcription profiling experiment, the rate-limiting step is in the isolation of sufficient amounts of high quality mRNA. Given the abundance of enzymes, debris, food residues, and particulate matter in the GI tract, the challenge of RNA isolation is daunting. Here, we present a method for reliable and reproducible isolation of bacterial RNA recovered from the murine GI tract. This method utilizes a well-established murine model of PA GI colonization and neutropenia-induced dissemination4. Once GI colonization with PA is confirmed, mice are euthanized and cecal contents are recovered and flash frozen. RNA is then extracted using a combination of mechanical disruption, boiling, phenol/chloroform extractions, DNase treatment, and affinity chromatography. Quantity and purity are confirmed by spectrophotometry (Nanodrop Technologies) and bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies) (Fig 1). This method of GI microbial RNA isolation can easily be adapted to other bacteria and fungi as well.

RNA Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Colonizing the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract

A reliable method for the RNA isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from murine cecums is described. The RNA recovered is of sufficient quantity and quality for subsequent qPCR, transcription profiling, and RNA Seq experiments. This technique can be adapted for RNA isolation of other intestinal microbes.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections result in significant morbidity and mortality in hosts with compromised immune systems, such as patients with ...

Use of Artificial Sputum Medium to Test Antibiotic Efficacy Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Conditions More Relevant to the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

There is growing concern about the relevance of in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility tests when applied to isolates of P. aeruginosa from cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Existing methods rely on single or a few isolates grown aerobically and planktonically. Predetermined cut-offs are used to define whether the bacteria are sensitive or resistant to any given antibiotic1. However, during chronic lung infections in CF, P. aeruginosa populations exist in biofilms and there is evidence that the environment is largely microaerophilic2. The stark difference in conditions between bacteria in the lung and those during diagnostic testing has called into question the reliability and even relevance of these tests3.
 Artificial sputum medium (ASM) is a culture medium containing the components of CF patient sputum, including amino acids, mucin and free DNA. P. aeruginosa growth in ASM mimics growth during CF infections, with the formation of self-aggregating biofilm structures and population divergence4,5,6. The aim of this study was to develop a microtitre-plate assay to study antimicrobial susceptibility of P. aeruginosa based on growth in ASM, which is applicable to both microaerophilic and aerobic conditions.
 An ASM assay was developed in a microtitre plate format. P. aeruginosa biofilms were allowed to develop for 3 days prior to incubation with antimicrobial agents at different concentrations for 24 hours. After biofilm disruption, cell viability was measured by staining with resazurin. This assay was used to ascertain the sessile cell minimum inhibitory concentration (SMIC) of tobramycin for 15 different P. aeruginosa isolates under aerobic and microaerophilic conditions and SMIC values were compared to those obtained with standard broth growth. Whilst there was some evidence for increased MIC values for isolates grown in ASM when compared to their planktonic counterparts, the biggest differences were found with bacteria tested in microaerophilic conditions, which showed a much increased resistance up to a &gt;128 fold, towards tobramycin in the ASM system when compared to assays carried out in aerobic conditions.
 The lack of association between current susceptibility testing methods and clinical outcome has questioned the validity of current methods3. Several in vitro models have been used previously to study P. aeruginosa biofilms7, 8. However, these methods rely on surface attached biofilms, whereas the ASM biofilms resemble those observed in the CF lung9 . In addition, reduced oxygen concentration in the mucus has been shown to alter the behavior of P. aeruginosa2 and affect antibiotic susceptibility10. Therefore using ASM under microaerophilic conditions may provide a more realistic environment in which to study antimicrobial susceptibility.

Use of Artificial Sputum Medium to Test Antibiotic Efficacy Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Conditions More Relevant to the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

Current diagnostic antimicrobial susceptibility testing relies on the planktonic growth of isolates in nutrient rich, aerobic conditions. Here, we employ an alternative artificial sputum medium to study antimicrobial susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms under both aerobic and microaerophilic conditions more representative of the cystic fibrosis lung.

There  is growing concern about the relevance of in vitro antimicrobial  susceptibility tests when applied to isolates of P. aeruginosa from  cystic ...

Long Term Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa Airway Infection in Mice

A mouse model of chronic airway infection is a key asset in cystic fibrosis (CF) research, although there are a number of concerns regarding the model itself. Early phases of inflammation and infection have been widely studied by using the Pseudomonas aeruginosa agar-beads mouse model, while only few reports have focused on the long-term chronic infection in vivo. The main challenge for long term chronic infection remains the low bacterial burden by P. aeruginosa and the low percentage of infected mice weeks after challenge, indicating that bacterial cells are progressively cleared by the host.
This paper presents a method for obtaining efficient long-term chronic infection in mice. This method is based on the embedding of the P. aeruginosa clinical strains in the agar-beads in vitro, followed by intratracheal instillation in C57Bl/6NCrl mice. Bilateral lung infection is associated with several measurable read-outs including weight loss, mortality, chronic infection, and inflammatory response. The P. aeruginosa RP73 clinical strain was preferred over the PAO1 reference laboratory strain since it resulted in a comparatively lower mortality, more severe lesions, and higher chronic infection. P. aeruginosa colonization may persist in the lung for over three months. Murine lung pathology resembles that of CF patients with advanced chronic pulmonary disease.
This murine model most closely mimics the course of the human disease and can be used both for studies on the pathogenesis and for the evaluation of novel therapies.

Long Term Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa Airway Infection in Mice

We describe the agar-beads method to establish persistent long-term chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa airway infection in the mouse model.

A mouse model of chronic airway infection is a key asset in cystic fibrosis (CF) research, although there are a number of concerns regarding the model ...

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Induced Lung Injury Model

In order to study human acute lung injury and pneumonia, it is important to develop animal models to mimic various pathological features of this disease. Here we have developed a mouse lung injury model by intra-tracheal injection of bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa or PA). Using this model, we were able to show lung inflammation at the early phase of injury. In addition, alveolar epithelial barrier leakiness was observed by analyzing bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL); and alveolar cell death was observed by Tunel assay using tissue prepared from injured lungs. At a later phase following injury, we observed cell proliferation required for the repair process. The injury was resolved 7 days from the initiation of P. aeruginosa injection. This model mimics the sequential course of lung inflammation, injury and repair during pneumonia. This clinically relevant animal model is suitable for studying pathology, mechanism of repair, following acute lung injury, and also can be used to test potential therapeutic agents for this disease.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Induced Lung Injury Model

We have developed a mouse lung injury model by intra-tracheal injection of bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This model mimics lung injury during pneumonia and is clinically relevant.

In order to study human acute lung injury and pneumonia, it is important to develop animal models to mimic various pathological features of this disease. ...

Studying Microbial Communities In Vivo: A Model of Host-mediated Interaction Between Candida Albicans and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa in the Airways

Studying host-pathogen interaction enables us to understand the underlying mechanisms of the pathogenicity during microbial infection. The prognosis of the host depends on the involvement of an adapted immune response against the pathogen1. Immune response is complex and results from interaction of the pathogens and several immune or non-immune cellular types2. In vitro studies cannot characterise these interactions and focus on cell-pathogen interactions. Moreover, in the airway3, particularly in patients with suppurative chronic lung disease or in mechanically ventilated patients, polymicrobial communities are present and complicate host-pathogen interaction. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans are both problem pathogens4, frequently isolated from tracheobronchial samples, and associated to severe infections, especially in intensive care unit5. Microbial interactions have been reported between these pathogens in vitro but the clinical impact of these interactions remains unclear6. To study the interactions between C. albicans and P. aeruginosa, a murine model of C. albicans airways colonization, followed by a P. aeruginosa-mediated acute lung infection was performed.

Studying Microbial Communities In Vivo: A Model of Host-mediated Interaction Between Candida Albicans and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa in the Airways

While in vitro study of host-pathogen interactions allow the characterization of specific immune responses, in vivo models are required to observe the effects of complex responses. Using Candida albicans exposure followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa-mediated lung infection, we established a murine model of microbial interactions involved in ventilator-associated pneumonia pathogenicity.

Studying host-pathogen interaction enables us to understand the underlying mechanisms of the pathogenicity during microbial infection. The prognosis of ...

Come to the Light Side: In Vivo Monitoring of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Infections in Chronic Wounds in a Diabetic Hairless Murine Model

The presence of bacteria as structured biofilms in chronic wounds, especially in diabetic patients, is thought to prevent wound healing and resolution. Chronic mouse wounds models have been used to understand the underlying interactions between the microorganisms and the host. The models developed to date rely on the use of haired animals and terminal collection of wound tissue for determination of viable bacteria. While significant insight has been gained with these models, this experimental procedure requires a large number of animals and sampling is time consuming. We have developed a novel murine model that incorporates several optimal innovations to evaluate biofilm progression in chronic wounds: a) it utilizes hairless mice, eliminating the need for hair removal; b) applies pre-formed biofilms to the wounds allowing for the immediate evaluation of persistence and effect of these communities on host; c) monitors biofilm progression by quantifying light production by a genetically engineered bioluminescent strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, allowing real-time monitoring of the infection thus reducing the number of animals required per study. In this model, a single full-depth wound is produced on the back of STZ-induced diabetic hairless mice and inoculated with biofilms of the P. aeruginosa bioluminescent strain Xen 41. Light output from the wounds is recorded daily in an in vivo imaging system, allowing for in vivo and in situ rapid biofilm visualization and localization of biofilm bacteria within the wounds. This novel method is flexible as it can be used to study other microorganisms, including genetically engineered species and multi-species biofilms, and may be of special value in testing anti-biofilm strategies including antimicrobial occlusive dressings.

Come to the Light Side: In Vivo Monitoring of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Infections in Chronic Wounds in a Diabetic Hairless Murine Model

Here we describe a novel diabetic murine model utilizing hairless mice for real-time, non-invasive, monitoring of biofilm wound infections of bioluminescent Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This method can be adapted to evaluate infection of other bacterial species and genetically modified microorganisms, including multi-species biofilms, and test the efficacy of antibiofilm strategies.

The presence of bacteria as structured biofilms in chronic wounds, especially in diabetic patients, is thought to prevent wound healing and resolution. ...

Replication of the Ordered, Nonredundant Library of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain PA14 Transposon Insertion Mutants

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a phenotypically and genotypically diverse and adaptable Gram-negative bacterium ubiquitous in human environments. P. aeruginosa is able to form biofilms, develop antibiotic resistance, produce virulence factors, and rapidly evolve in the course of a chronic infection. Thus P. aeruginosa can cause both acute and chronic, difficult to treat infections, resulting in significant morbidity in certain patient populations. P. aeruginosa strain PA14 is a human clinical isolate with a conserved genome structure that infects a variety of mammalian and nonvertebrate hosts making PA14 an attractive strain for studying this pathogen. In 2006, a nonredundant transposon insertion mutant library containing 5,459 mutants corresponding to 4,596 predicted PA14 genes was generated. Since then, distribution of the PA14 library has allowed the research community to better understand the function of individual genes and complex pathways of P. aeruginosa. Maintenance of library integrity through the replication process requires proper handling and precise techniques. To that end, this manuscript presents protocols that describe in detail the steps involved in library replication, library quality control and proper storage of individual mutants.

Replication of the Ordered, Nonredundant Library of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain PA14 Transposon Insertion Mutants

Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection causes significant morbidity in vulnerable hosts. The nonredundant transposon insertion mutant library of P. aeruginosa strain PA14, designated as PA14NR Set, facilitates analysis of gene functionality in numerous processes. Presented here is a protocol to generate high-quality copies of the PA14NR Set mutant library.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a phenotypically and genotypically diverse and adaptable Gram-negative bacterium ubiquitous in human environments. P. aeruginosa ...

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge. It has been hypothesized that infection of pulmonary tissue during pneumonia results in the production of long-lived cytotoxins that can lead to subsequent end organ failure. We have developed in vitro assays to test the hypothesis that cytotoxins are produced during pulmonary infection. Isolated rat pulmonary endothelial cells and the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa are used as model systems, and the production of cytoxins following infection of the endothelial cells by the bacteria is demonstrated using cell culture followed by direct quantitation using lactate dehydrogenase assays and a novel microscopic method utilizing ImageJ technology. The amyloid nature of these cytotoxins was demonstrated by thioflavin T binding assays and by immunoblotting and immunodepletion using A11 anti-amyloid antibody. Further analyses using immunoblotting demonstrated that oligomeric tau and A&#946; were produced and released by endothelial cells following infection by P. aeruginosa. These methods should be readily adaptable to analyses of human clinical samples.

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Simple methods are described for demonstrating the production of cytotoxic amyloids following infection of pulmonary endothelium by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge. It has been hypothesized that infection of pulmonary ...