1. Cell culture
<ol>
	<li>Maintain cells in a humidified 37 &#176;C/5% CO2 incubator and culture with either DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (HeLa and A431 cells) or RPMI supplemented with 15% FBS (U266B1 cells). Culture the cells until they reach 70-80% confluence, then trypsinize them and passage or use them for the assays. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Culture media contained phenol red. No serum starvation was conducted for any cell line prior to conducting the assays.</li>
</ol>
<p class="jove...

<ol>
	<li>Villarino, A., Kanno, Y., O'Shea, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+and+consequences+of+Jak-STAT+signaling+in+the+immune+system.">Mechanisms and consequences of Jak-STAT signaling in the immune system.</a> Nature Immunology. 18 (4), 374-384 (2017).</li><li>Hammar&#233;n, H. M., Virtanen, A. T., Raivola, J., Silvennoinen, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+regulation+of+JAKs+in+cytokine+signaling+and+its+breakdown+in+disease.">The regulation of JAKs in cytokine signaling and its breakdown in disease.</a> Cytokine. 118, 48-63 (2019).</li><li>O'Shea, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+JAK-STAT+pathway:+impact+on+human+disease+and+therapeutic+intervention.">The JAK-STAT pathway: impact on human disease and therapeutic intervention.</a> Annual Review of Medicine. 66, 311-328 (2015).</li><li>Verhoeven, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=et+al.+potential+and+controversy+of+targeting+STAT+family+members+in+cancer.">et al. potential and controversy of targeting STAT family members in cancer.</a> Seminars in Cancer Biology. 60 (2), 41-56 (2020).</li><li>Gilda, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=et+al.+blotting+inaccuracies+with+unverified+antibodies:+need+for+a+Western+blotting+minimal+reporting+standard+(WBMRS).">et al. blotting inaccuracies with unverified antibodies: need for a Western blotting minimal reporting standard (WBMRS).</a> PLoS One. 10 (8), 0135392 (2015).</li><li>Binder, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=et+al.+and+utilization+of+the+SureFire+phospho-STAT5+assay+for+a+cell-based+screening+campaign.">et al. and utilization of the SureFire phospho-STAT5 assay for a cell-based screening campaign.</a> Assay and Drug Development Technologies. 6 (1), 27-37 (2008).</li><li>Ayoub, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Homogeneous+time-resolved+fluorescence-based+assay+to+monitor+extracellular+signal-regulated+kinase+signaling+in+a+high-throughput+format.">Homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence-based assay to monitor extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling in a high-throughput format.</a> Frontiers in Endocrinology. 5, 94 (2014).</li><li>Robers, M. B., Machleidt, T., Carlson, C. B., Bi, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+LanthaScreen+and+beta-lactamase+reporter+assays+for+high-throughput+screening+of+JAK2+inhibitors.">Cellular LanthaScreen and beta-lactamase reporter assays for high-throughput screening of JAK2 inhibitors.</a> Assay and Drug Development Technologies. 6 (4), 519-529 (2008).</li><li>Hwang, B., Engel, L., Goueli, S. A., Zegzouti, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Homogeneous+bioluminescent+immunoassay+to+probe+cellular+signaling+pathway+regulation.">Homogeneous bioluminescent immunoassay to probe cellular signaling pathway regulation.</a> Communications Biology. 3 (8), 1-12 (2020).</li><li>Zhang, J. H., Chung, T. D., Oldenburg, K. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+statistical+parameter+for+use+in+evaluation+and+validation+of+high-throughput+screening+assays.">A simple statistical parameter for use in evaluation and validation of high-throughput screening assays.</a> Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 4 (2), 67-73 (1999).</li><li>Osmond, R. I. W., Das, S., Crouch, M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+cell-based+assays+for+cytokine+receptor+signaling,+using+an+AlphaScreen+SureFire+assay+format.">Development of cell-based assays for cytokine receptor signaling, using an AlphaScreen SureFire assay format.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 403 (1-2), 94-101 (2010).</li><li>Haan, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Jak1+has+a+dominant+role+over+Jak3+in+signal+transduction+through+&#947;c-containing+cytokine+receptors.">Jak1 has a dominant role over Jak3 in signal transduction through &#947;c-containing cytokine receptors.</a> Chemistry &amp; Biology. 18 (3), 314-323 (2011).</li><li>Kim, Y., Apetri, M., Luo, B., Settleman, J. E., Anderson, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+effects+of+tyrosine+kinase+inhibitors+on+normal+and+oncogenic+EGFR+signaling+and+downstream+effectors.">Differential effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitors on normal and oncogenic EGFR signaling and downstream effectors.</a> Molecular Cancer Research. 13 (4), 765-774 (2015).</li><li>Qian, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+two+homogeneous+cell-based+kinase+assays+for+JAK2+V617F:+SureFire+pSTAT5+and+GeneBLAzer+fluorescence+resonance+energy+transfer+assays.">Comparison of two homogeneous cell-based kinase assays for JAK2 V617F: SureFire pSTAT5 and GeneBLAzer fluorescence resonance energy transfer assays.</a> ASSAY and Drug Development Technologies. 10 (2), 212-217 (2012).</li><li>Iversen, P. W., et al., Markossian, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HTS+assay+validation.">HTS assay validation.</a> Assay Guidance Manual. , (2012).</li><li>Muelas, M. W., Ortega, F., Breitling, R., Bendtsen, C., Westerhoff, H. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rational+cell+culture+optimization+enhances+experimental+reproducibility+in+cancer+cells.">Rational cell culture optimization enhances experimental reproducibility in cancer cells.</a> Scientific Reports. 8, 3029 (2018).</li></ol>

Compared to conventional methods for phosphoprotein analysis such as western blotting and ELISA-based methods, the workflow for a THUNDER TR-FRET cellular assay is simple and fast, uses a low-volume sample (15 &#181;L), is designed for HTS in a 384-well format, and is highly amenable to automation. The assay protocol is flexible and can readily be adapted to both medium- and high-throughput applications. Assays can be run using either a two-plate transfer protocol or a one-384-well plate protocol. In the two-plate transf...

The JAK/STAT signaling pathway plays a key role in mediating cellular responses to diverse cytokines, interferons, growth factors, and related molecules1,2. The binding of these ligands to specific cell-surface receptors results in the activation of JAKs, which in turn activate STAT proteins by phosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues. STAT phosphorylation results in their dimerization and translocation into the nucleus, where they exert their effect on the transcription of regulated target genes. The STAT family consists of seven members: STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5a, STAT5b, and STAT6. The members play a complex and essential role in the regulation of physiologic cell processes, including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and immune system regulation. The abnormal activation of STAT signaling pathways is implicated in many human diseases, especially cancer and immune-related conditions3,4. Therefore, the ability to assess STAT protein phosphorylation within the native cell signaling environment is important for both academic and drug discovery research.
To date, the conventional methods used to measure intracellular phosphorylated protein levels, including STATs, are antibody-based and include western blotting, ELISA, and phosphoflow cytometry. These heterogeneous methods are labor-intensive, time-consuming, error-prone, low-throughput, and often unreliable (e.g., specificity issues) in the case of western blotting5. In contrast, homogeneous assays require fewer experimental steps, use smaller sample volumes, and are amenable to HTS. There are five homogeneous cell-based immunoassay platforms commercially available that can be used to quantitatively monitor JAK-dependent phosphorylation of STATs in cell lysates: SureFire, HTRF, LANCE, LanthaScreen, and Lumit. Each of these platforms has its advantages and disadvantages.
SureFire is based on luminescent oxygen channeling technology, which utilizes donor and acceptor beads coated to specifically capture a pair of antibodies, one of which is biotinylated. In the presence of phosphorylated protein, the two antibodies bring the donor and acceptor beads into close proximity, enabling the generation of a chemiluminescent signal6. While versatile and sensitive, this technology is expensive, is affected by biotin in the culture medium, is very sensitive to ambient temperature and light, and requires a special reader for detection. HTRF and LANCE are both based on TR-FRET technology that utilizes long-lifetime luminescent lanthanide ion complexes (Europium or Terbium chelates, or Europium cryptate) as the donor molecules and far-red fluorophores as the acceptor molecules7. When two protein-specific antibodies labeled with either donor or acceptor molecules are brought into close proximity, FRET takes place, causing an increase in acceptor fluorescence and a decrease in donor fluorescence. These long-lived fluorescent signals can be measured in a time-resolved and ratiometric manner to reduce assay interference and increase data quality. Other advantages of TR-FRET are that it is not light-sensitive, allows repeated readings, and exhibits long signal stability. While TR-FRET is widely implemented in HTS due to its versatility, sensitivity, and high robustness, all commercial TR-FRET-based assay platforms are expensive, thereby precluding its wide adoption in academic and small industrial laboratories. The LanthaScreen assay also uses a TR-FRET based-readout but is reliant on an engineered U2OS cell line that stably expresses green fluorescent protein (GFP)-STAT1 fusion protein combined with a terbium-labeled phospho-specific STAT1 antibody8. In addition to being limited in terms of choice of signaling proteins, this method requires purchasing expensive transfected cell lines, reducing its applicability and increasing the possibility of experimental artifacts. Lumit is a generic bioluminescent immunoassay platform that utilizes secondary antibodies (anti-mouse and anti-rabbit) chemically labeled with the small and large NanoBit subunits of NanoLuc Luciferase9. The binding of two primary antibodies to the target protein brings the secondary antibodies into proximity to form an active enzyme that generates a luminescence signal. While luminescence is generally a sensitive and robust readout, the requirement for primary antibodies raised in two different species limits the choices for assay design. In addition, the use of secondary antibodies in complex sample matrixes may be prone to assay interference.
Thus, a need still exists for a reliable, rapid, yet affordable cell-based assay platform for measuring individual phosphorylated and total STAT proteins in a manner compatible with HTS. To address this need, a new high-throughput cell-based immunoassay platform was developed based on an enhanced TR-FRET technology (THUNDER) and designed to enable simple, sensitive, robust, and cost-effective measurement of endogenously expressed intracellular proteins (phosphorylated or total) in cell lysates. The advantages of this technology stem from the combination of a donor/acceptor FRET pair exhibiting exceptional spectral compatibility and TR-FRET signal, rigorously validated antibodies, and optimized lysis buffers. These assays are formatted as sandwich immunoassays and use a straightforward, three-step workflow (Figure 1). Cells are first treated to modulate protein phosphorylation and then lysed with the specific lysis buffer provided in the kit. The target phosphorylated or total STAT protein in the cell lysate is detected in a single reagent addition and incubation step with a pair of fluorophore-labeled antibodies that recognize distinct epitopes on the target protein (Figure 2). One antibody is labeled with a Europium chelate donor (Eu-Ab1), while the second antibody is labeled with a far-red acceptor fluorophore (FR-Ab2). The two labeled antibodies bind to the protein in solution, bringing the two labels into close proximity. Excitation of the donor Europium chelate at 320 or 340 nm triggers a FRET to the acceptor, which emits a long-lived TR-FRET signal at 665 nm proportional to the concentration of target protein (phosphorylated or total) in the cell lysate.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62915/62915fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: TR-FRET assay workflow. The workflow consists of three steps: cell treatment, cell lysis, and protein detection using TR-FRET. In the two-plate assay protocol, lysates are transferred to a white 384-well detection plate, whereas in the one-plate protocol, all steps are conducted in the same white 384-well detection plate (all-in-one-well protocol). Regardless of the assay protocol used, protein detection is performed in the same total volume (20 &#181;L per well). Abbreviation: TR-FRET = time-resolved F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62915/62915fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62915/62915fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: TR-FRET sandwich immunoassay principle. One antibody is labeled with the Europium chelate donor (Eu-Ab1) and the second with the far-red small fluorophore acceptor (FR-Ab2). The two labeled antibodies bind specifically to distinct epitopes on the target protein (phosphorylated or total) in the cell lysate, bringing the two fluorophores into close proximity. Excitation of the donor Europium chelate at 320 or 340 nm triggers a FRET from the donor to the acceptor molecules, which in turn emit a signal at 665 nm. This signal is proportional to the concentration of protein in the cell lysate. In the absence of the specific target protein, the donor and acceptor fluorophores are too distant from each other for FRET to occur. Abbreviations: FRET = F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer; TR-FRET = time-resolved FRET; Ab = antibody; FR = far-red; Eu - Europium chelate; P = phosphorylation. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62915/62915fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Here, detailed protocols are provided for measuring, in a 384-well format, the intracellular levels of phosphorylated STAT1 (Y701), STAT3 (Y705), STAT4 (Y693), STAT5 (Y694/Y699), and STAT6 (Y641), together with total STAT1, STAT3, STAT5, and STAT6, in cell lysates from adherent or suspension cells using the THUNDER TR-FRET platform. These protocols define steps for cell treatment, lysis, and TR-FRET-based target protein detection using either a two-plate transfer protocol or a one-plate all-in-one-well protocol. These cell-based assays are applied for determining the pharmacological profile of known activators and inhibitors of the JAK/STAT pathway. The robustness and suitability of selected assays for HTS are demonstrated. Lastly, key experiments for assay optimization are discussed, along with recommendations for assay troubleshooting.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well microplate, clear, flat bottom, polystyrene, tissue culture-treated, sterile</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3595</td>
			<td>This is the plate for culturing cells when using the two-plate assay protocol. Other cell culture 96-well plates can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>384-well microplate, white, low-volume</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>6007290</td>
			<td>This is the plate for TR-FRET detection when using the two- or one-plate assay protocols. Other low-volume, white 384-well plates can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A431 cell line</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-1555</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive microplate seal</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>6050185</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>D159-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#8217;s modified Eagle medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td>Wisent</td>
			<td>319-005-CL&#160;</td>
			<td>THUNDER TR-FRET is compatible with culture medium containing phenol red</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EnVision Xcite Multilabel plate reader</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>2104-0020A</td>
			<td>The assays can be performed on a variety of plate readers equipped with the TR-FRET option</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlotinib hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>CDS022564</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon tissue culture treated flasks</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-680-65</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Wisent</td>
			<td>098-150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HeLa cell line</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>JAK Inhibitor 1</td>
			<td>Cayman Chemical</td>
			<td>15146</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital plate shaker</td>
			<td>Many options available</td>
			<td>Not applicable</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant human EGF</td>
			<td>PeproTech</td>
			<td>AF-100-15</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant human IFN&#945;2b</td>
			<td>ProSpec</td>
			<td>CYT-460</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant human IL-4</td>
			<td>R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td>204-IL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Roswell Park Memorial Institute 1640 medium (RPMI)</td>
			<td>Wisent</td>
			<td>350-007-CL</td>
			<td>THUNDER TR-FRET is compatible with culture medium containing phenol red</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THUNDER Phospho-STAT1 (Y701) + Total STAT1 TR-FRET Cell Signaling Assay Kit</td>
			<td>BioAuxilium Research</td>
			<td>KIT-STAT1PT-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THUNDER Phospho-STAT3 (Y705) + Total STAT3 Cell Signaling Assay Kit</td>
			<td>BioAuxilium Research</td>
			<td>KIT-STAT3PT-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THUNDER Phospho-STAT4 (Y693) + Total STAT4 TR-FRET Cell Signaling Assay Kit</td>
			<td>BioAuxilium Research</td>
			<td>KIT-STAT4PT-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THUNDER Phospho-STAT5 (Y694/Y699) + Total STAT5 TR-FRET Cell Signaling Assay Kit</td>
			<td>BioAuxilium Research</td>
			<td>KIT-STAT5PT-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THUNDER Phospho-STAT6 (Y641) + Total STAT6 TR-FRET Cell Signaling Assay Kit</td>
			<td>BioAuxilium Research</td>
			<td>KIT-STAT6PT-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin/EDTA 0.05%</td>
			<td>Wisent</td>
			<td>325-542-CL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U266B1 cell line</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>TIB-196</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrapure water</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Use Milli-Q grade water (18 M&#937;.cm) to dilute Lysis Buffer and Detection Buffer</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

time-resolved f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer assays for measurement of endogenous phosphorylated stat proteins in human cells

The Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in mediating cellular responses to cytokines and growth factors. STAT proteins are activated by tyrosine phosphorylation mediated mainly by JAKs. The abnormal activation of STAT signaling pathways is implicated in many human diseases, especially cancer and immune-related conditions. Therefore, the ability to monitor STAT protein phosphorylation within the native cell signaling environment is important for both academic and drug discovery research. The traditional assay formats available to quantify phosphorylated STAT proteins include western blotting and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). These heterogeneous methods are labor-intensive, low-throughput, and often not reliable (specific) in the case of western blotting. Homogeneous (no-wash) methods are available but remain expensive. 
Here, detailed protocols are provided for the sensitive, robust, and cost-effective measurement in a 384-well format of endogenous levels of phosphorylated STAT1 (Y701), STAT3 (Y705), STAT4 (Y693), STAT5 (Y694/Y699), and STAT6 (Y641) in cell lysates from adherent or suspension cells using the novel THUNDER time-resolved F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET) platform. The workflow for the cellular assay is simple, fast, and designed for high-throughput screening (HTS). The assay protocol is flexible, uses a low-volume sample (15 &#181;L), requires only one reagent addition step, and can be adapted to low-throughput and high-throughput applications. Each phospho-STAT sandwich immunoassay is validated under optimized conditions with known agonists and inhibitors and generates the expected pharmacology and Z'-factor values. As TR-FRET assays are ratiometric and require no washing steps, they provide much better reproducibility than traditional approaches. Together, this suite of assays provides new cost-effective tools for a more comprehensive analysis of specific phosphorylated STAT proteins following cell treatment and the screening and characterization of specific and selective modulators of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway.

Each THUNDER TR-FRET assay was pharmacologically validated by treating adherent (HeLa or A431) or suspension cells (U266B1) with JAK/STAT pathway-specific activators or inhibitors and then measuring the levels of specific phosphorylated and total STATs, when applicable. Assays were conducted in 384-well format using the two-plate transfer protocol and pre-optimized assay conditions. Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, <strong class="xfig"...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Time-resolved FÃ¶rster Resonance Energy Transfer Assays for Measurement of Endogenous Phosphorylated STAT Proteins in Human Cells at JoVE.com

Time-resolved F&amp;#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Assays for Measurement of Endogenous Phosphorylated STAT Proteins in Human Cells

Time-resolved F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer cell-based assay protocols are described for the simple, specific, sensitive, and robust quantification of endogenous phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 1/3/4/5/6 proteins in cell lysates in a 384-well format.

Time-resolved F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Assays for Measurement of Endogenous Phosphorylated STAT Proteins in Human Cells

The Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in mediating cellular responses to ...

The TR-FRET based assays provide new cost effective tools for the screening and pharmacological characterization of specific and selective modulators of the JAK/STAT signaling pathways. This technique is much easier, rapid, reproducible, and robust than conventional methods like Western blot and ELISA. No washing steps are required and reagents are added in a single step.This immunoassay platform can be easily applied to other cell signaling proteins provided specific antibodies are available. To design reproducible assays, you must use good cell culture practices and establish standard operating procedures. In addition, you must carefully optimize the cell culture and treatment conditions.Demonstrating the procedure will be Genevieve Chatel, a scientist from our laboratory. To begin, culture HeLa and A431 cells in a humidified 37 degree Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide incubator using DMEM supplemented with 10%FBS. When the cells reach 70 to 80%confluence, trypsinize them and either passage or use them for assays.To perform the assay, dispense 50 microliters of cells at the pre-optimized density into a 96-well tissue culture-treated plate in the appropriate culture medium, then incubate them overnight in a 37 degree Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide incubator. The following day, prepare intermediate twofold and fourfold dilution series of the test compounds by serially diluting the compound in a serum-free medium across 12 wells of a polypropylene 96-well plate. For cell stimulation, add 50 microliters of serum-free medium containing the simulator at a 2X concentration and incubate the cells for the pre-optimized time at either room temperature or 37 degrees.For cell inhibition, add 25 microliters of serum-free medium containing the inhibitor at a 4X concentration and incubate the cells for the pre-optimized time at either room temperature or 37 degrees, then add 25 microliters of serum-free medium containing the stimulator at a 4X concentration and incubate for the pre-optimized time. Next, to lyse the cells, prepare the 1X supplemented lysis buffer and add phosphatase inhibitor cocktail to it. After carefully removing and discarding the cell culture medium, immediately add 50 microliters of the prepared 1X supplemented lysis buffer and incubate for 30 minutes at room temperature under shaking with moderate agitation.For TR-FRET detection, prepare the 4X antibody detection mix in 1X detection buffer, then prepare the EUAB1 and FRAB2 antibody solutions, as well as the EUAB3 and FRAB4 antibody solutions in 1X detection buffer. Finally, mix pre-diluted EUAB1 with pre-diluted FRAB2 for detection of phosphoprotein and pre-diluted EUAB3 and pre-diluted FRAB4 for detection of total protein. Then carefully pipette 15 microliters of the cell lysate from the 96-well culture plate to a well of a white low-volume 384-well microplate.Next, add 15 microliters of the positive control lysate and 15 microliters of 1X lysis buffer as a negative control to separate assay wells. To wells containing 15 microliters of the lysate, add five microliters of the corresponding 4X antibody detection mix to detect the phosphoprotein or total protein. After covering the plate with a plate sealer, incubate it at room temperature for one hour to overnight depending on the assay kit.After the incubation is complete, remove the adhesive plate sealer and read the plate on a TR-FRET compatible microplate reader. Results of TR-FRET assays for detection and quantification of phospho-STAT1 with total STAT1 and phospho-STAT4 in U266B1 cells along with phospho-STAT5 with total STAT5 in A431 cells are represented using concentration response curves. Similarly, TR-FRET assays for detection and quantification of phospho-STAT3 and total STAT3 and phospho-STAT6 and total STAT6 in HeLa cells are represented using concentration response curves.Overall, all assays showed robust TR-FRET signals, wide dynamic ranges, low inter-well coefficient variation, and acceptable signal-to-background ratios. Treatment of cells with JAK activators, interferon alfa-2B and IL-4 and EGF showed the anticipated concentration-dependent increase in STAT phosphorylation at specific tyrosine residues, while the corresponding total STAT proteins remained stable. Both JAK inhibitor and erlotinib inhibited the corresponding phospho-STAT levels in a concentration-dependent manner.Results of phospho-STAT4 stimulation by interferon alfa-2B in a suspension cell line or phospho-STAT6 stimulation by IL-4 in an adherence cell line using the one-plate protocol were consistent with those obtained using the two-plate protocol, thus showing successful adaptability of a two-plate transfer protocol to a one-plate all-in-one well protocol. Results of the intra-plate variability study for the phospho-STAT1 assay using a suspension cell line and the phospho-STAT3 assay using an adherence cell line demonstrate the robustness of these phospho-STAT assays for HTS applications. It is essential to supplement the lysis buffer with the phosphatase inhibitor cocktail to prevent dephosphorylation of the phosphorylated proteins from active phosphatase present in the whole cell extract.

time-resolved-forster-resonance-energy-transfer-assays-for

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy for the Identification of Multiple Phosphorylations of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Aggregates of the neuronal Tau protein are found inside neurons of Alzheimer's disease patients. Development of the disease is accompanied by increased, abnormal phosphorylation of Tau. In the course of the molecular investigation of Tau functions and dysfunctions in the disease, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is used to identify the multiple phosphorylations of Tau. We present here detailed protocols of recombinant production of Tau in bacteria, with isotopic enrichment for NMR studies. Purification steps that take advantage of Tau's heat stability and high isoelectric point are described. The protocol for in vitro phosphorylation of Tau by recombinant activated ERK2 allows for generating multiple phosphorylations. The protein sample is ready for data acquisition at the issue of these steps. The parameter setup to start recording on the spectrometer is considered next. Finally, the strategy to identify phosphorylation sites of modified Tau, based on NMR data, is explained. The benefit of this methodology compared to other techniques used to identify phosphorylation sites, such as immuno-detection or mass spectrometry (MS), is discussed.

We describe here a method to identify multiple phosphorylations of an intrinsically disordered protein by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR), using Tau protein as a case study. Recombinant Tau is isotopically enriched and modified in vitro by a kinase prior to data acquisition and analysis.

Aggregates of the neuronal Tau protein are found inside neurons of Alzheimer's disease patients. Development of the disease is accompanied by increased, ...

Time-resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Hydrogen-deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry for Studying Protein Structure and Dynamics

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange (HDX) measured at rapid time scales is uniquely suited to detect structures and hydrogen bonding networks that are briefly populated, allowing for the characterization of transient conformers in native ensembles. Coupling of HDX to mass spectrometry offers several key advantages, including high sensitivity, low sample consumption and no restriction on protein size. This technique has advanced greatly in the last several decades, including the ability to monitor HDX labeling times on the millisecond time scale. In addition, by incorporating the HDX workflow onto a microfluidic platform housing an acidic protease microreactor, we are able to localize dynamic properties at the peptide level. In this study, Time-Resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TRESI-MS) coupled to HDX was used to provide a detailed picture of residual structure in the tau protein, as well as the conformational shifts induced upon hyperphosphorylation.

Conformational flexibility plays a critical role in protein function. Herein, we describe the use of time-resolved electrospray ionization mass spectrometry coupled to hydrogen-deuterium exchange for probing the rapid structural changes that drive function in ordered and disordered proteins.

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. ...

Utilizing a Comprehensive Immunoprecipitation Enrichment System to Identify an Endogenous Post-translational Modification Profile for Target Proteins

It is now well-appreciated that post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an integral role in regulating a protein&#39;s structure and function, which may be essential for a given protein&#39;s role both physiologically and pathologically. Enrichment of PTMs is often necessary when investigating the PTM status of a target protein, because PTMs are often transient and relatively low in abundance. Many pitfalls are encountered when enriching for a PTM of a target protein, such as buffer incompatibility, the target protein antibody is not IP-compatible, loss of PTM signal, and others. The degree of difficulty is magnified when investigating multiple PTMs like acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation 2/3, and tyrosine phosphorylation for a given target protein. Studying a combination of these PTMs may be necessary, as crosstalk between PTMs is prevalent and critical for protein regulation. Often, these PTMs are studied in different lysis buffers and with unique inhibitor compositions. To simplify the process, a unique denaturing lysis system was developed that effectively isolates and preserves these four PTMs; thus, enabling investigation of potential crosstalk in a single lysis system. A unique filter system was engineered to remove contaminating genomic DNA from the lysate, which is a problematic by-product of denaturing buffers. Robust affinity matrices targeting each of the four PTMs were developed in concert with the buffer system to maximize the enrichment and detection of the endogenous states of these four PTMs. This comprehensive PTM detection toolset streamlines the process of obtaining critical information about whether a protein is modified by one or more of these PTMs.

Investigating multiple, endogenous post-translational modifications for a target protein can be extremely challenging. Techniques described here utilize an optimized lysis buffer and filter system developed with specific PTM-targeting, affinity matrices to detect the acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation 2/3, and tyrosine phosphorylation modifications for a target protein using a single, streamlined system.

It is now well-appreciated that post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an integral role in regulating a protein&#39;s structure and function, which ...

Isolation of Physiologically Active Thylakoids and Their Use in Energy-Dependent Protein Transport Assays

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within the chloroplasts, the thylakoid membrane system houses all the photosynthetic pigments, reaction center complexes, and most of the electron carriers, and is responsible for light-dependent ATP synthesis. Over 90% of chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus, translated in the cytosol, and subsequently imported into the chloroplast. Further protein transport into or across the thylakoid membrane utilizes one of four translocation pathways. Here, we describe a high-yield method for isolation of transport-competent thylakoids from peas (Pisum sativum), along with transport assays through the three energy-dependent cpTat, cpSec1, and cpSRP-mediated pathways. These methods enable experiments relating to thylakoid protein localization, transport energetics, and the mechanisms of protein translocation across biological membranes.

We present protocols herein for high-yield isolation of physiologically active thylakoids and protein transport assays for the chloroplast twin arginine translocation (cpTat), secretory (cpSec1), and signal recognition particle (cpSRP) pathways.

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within ...

Using In Vitro Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer to Study the Dynamics Of Protein Complexes at a Millisecond Time Scale

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological functions. Such interactions can be highly dynamic, meaning the interacting subunits are constantly associated and dissociated at certain rates. While measuring the binding affinity using techniques such as quantitative pull-down reveals the strength of the interaction, studying the binding kinetics provides insights on how fast the interaction occurs and how long each complex can exist. Furthermore, measuring the kinetics of an interaction in the presence of an additional factor, such as a protein exchange factor or a drug, helps reveal the mechanism by which the interaction is regulated by the other factor, providing important knowledge for the advancement of biological and medical research. Here, we describe a protocol for measuring the binding kinetics of a protein complex that has a high intrinsic association rate and can be dissociated quickly by another protein. The method uses fluorescence resonance energy transfer to report the formation of the protein complex in vitro, and it enables monitoring the fast association and dissociation of the complex in real time on a stopped-flow fluorimeter. Using this assay, the association and dissociation rate constants of the protein complex are quantified.

Protein-protein interactions are critical for biological systems, and studies of the binding kinetics provide insights into the dynamics and function of protein complexes. We describe a method that quantifies the kinetic parameters of a protein complex using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the stopped-flow technique. &#160;

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological ...

Expression, Purification, Crystallization, and Enzyme Assays of Fumarylacetoacetate Hydrolase Domain-Containing Proteins

Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (FAH) domain-containing proteins (FAHD) are identified members of the FAH superfamily in eukaryotes. Enzymes of this superfamily generally display multi-functionality, involving mainly hydrolase and decarboxylase mechanisms. This article presents a series of consecutive methods for the expression and purification of FAHD proteins, mainly FAHD protein 1 (FAHD1) orthologues among species (human, mouse, nematodes, plants, etc.). Covered methods are protein expression in E. coli, affinity chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, preparative and analytical gel filtration, crystallization, X-ray diffraction, and photometric assays. Concentrated protein of high levels of purity (&#62;98%) may be employed for crystallization or antibody production. Proteins of similar or lower quality may be employed in enzyme assays or used as antigens in detection systems (Western-Blot, ELISA). In the discussion of this work, the identified enzymatic mechanisms of FAHD1 are outlined to describe its hydrolase and decarboxylase bi-functionality in more detail.

Expression and purification of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase domain-containing proteins is described with examples (expression in E. coli, FPLC). Purified proteins are used for crystallization and antibody production and employed for enzyme assays. Selected photometric assays are presented to display the multi-functionality of FAHD1 as oxaloacetate decarboxylase and acylpyruvate hydrolase.

Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (FAH) domain-containing proteins (FAHD) are identified members of the FAH superfamily in eukaryotes. Enzymes of this ...

Transverse Sectioning of Mature Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Kernels for Scanning Electron Microscopy Imaging Using Pipette Tips as Immobilization Support

Starch granules (SGs) exhibit different morphologies depending on the plant species, especially in the endosperm of the Poaceae family. Endosperm phenotyping can be used to classify genotypes based on SG morphotype using scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis. SGs can be visualized using SEM by slicing through the kernel (pericarp, aleurone layers, and endosperm) and exposing the organellar contents. Current methods require the rice kernel to be embedded in plastic resin and sectioned using a microtome or embedded in a truncated pipette tip and sectioned by hand using a razor blade. The former method requires specialized equipment and is time-consuming, while the latter introduces a new host of problems depending on rice genotype. Chalky rice varieties, particularly, pose a problem for this type of sectioning due to the friable nature of their endosperm tissue. Presented here is a technique for preparing translucent and chalky rice kernel sections for microscopy, requiring only pipette tips and a scalpel blade. Preparing the sections within the confines of a pipette tip prevents rice kernel endosperm from shattering (for translucent or &#8216;vitreous&#8217; phenotypes) and crumbling (for chalky phenotypes). Using this technique, endosperm cell patterning and the structure of intact SGs can be observed.

Transverse Sectioning of Mature Rice Oryza sativa L. Kernels for Scanning Electron Microscopy Imaging Using Pipette Tips as Immobilization Support

This protocol allows for the preparation of transverse sections of cereal seeds (e.g., rice) for the analysis of endosperm and starch granule morphology using scanning electron microscopy.

Starch granules (SGs) exhibit different morphologies depending on the plant species, especially in the endosperm of the Poaceae family. Endosperm ...

Removal and Replacement of Endogenous Ligands from Lipid-Bound Proteins and Allergens

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and have the potential to influence the sensitization process either through directly stimulating the immune system or altering the biophysical properties of the allergenic protein. In order to control for these variables, techniques are required for the removal of endogenously bound ligands and, if necessary, replacement with lipids of known composition. The cockroach allergen Bla g 1 encloses a large hydrophobic cavity which binds a heterogeneous mixture of endogenous lipids when purified using traditional techniques. Here, we describe a method through which these lipids are removed using reverse-phase HPLC followed by thermal annealing to yield Bla g 1 in either its Apo-form or reloaded with a user-defined mixture of fatty acid or phospholipid cargoes. Coupling this protocol with biochemical assays reveal that fatty acid cargoes significantly alter the thermostability and proteolytic resistance of Bla g 1, with downstream implications for the rate of T-cell epitope generation and allergenicity. These results highlight the importance of lipid removal/reloading protocols such as the one described herein when studying allergens from both recombinant and natural sources. The protocol is generalizable to other allergen families including lipocalins (Mus m 1), PR-10 (Bet v 1), MD-2 (Der p 2) and Uteroglobin (Fel d 1), providing a valuable tool to study the role of lipids in the allergic response.

This protocol describes the removal of endogenous lipids from allergens, and their replacement with user-specified ligands through reverse-phase HPLC coupled with thermal annealing. 31P-NMR and circular dichroism allow for the rapid confirmation of ligand removal/loading, and the recovery of native allergen structure.

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and ...

Fast Grid Preparation for Time-Resolved Cryo-Electron Microscopy

The field of cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly developing with new hardware and processing algorithms, producing higher resolution structures and information on more challenging systems. Sample preparation for cryo-EM is undergoing a similar revolution with new approaches being developed to supersede the traditional blotting systems. These include the use of piezo-electric dispensers, pin printing and direct spraying. As a result of these developments, the speed of grid preparation is going from seconds to milliseconds, providing new opportunities, especially in the field of time-resolved cryo-EM where proteins and substrates can be rapidly mixed before plunge freezing, trapping short lived intermediate states. Here we describe, in detail, a standard protocol for making grids on our in-house time-resolved EM device both for standard fast grid preparation and also for time-resolved experiments. The protocol requires a minimum of about 50 &#181;L sample at concentrations of &#8805; 2 mg/mL for the preparation of 4 grids. The delay between sample application and freezing can be as low as 10 ms. One limitation is increased ice thickness at faster speeds and compared to the blotting method. We hope this protocol will aid others in designing their own grid making devices and those interested in designing time-resolved experiments.

Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the use of a rapid grid making device for both fast grid-making and for rapid mixing and freezing to conduct time-resolved experiments.

The field of cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly developing with new hardware and processing algorithms, producing higher resolution structures ...

Utilizing Time-Resolved Protein-Induced Fluorescence Enhancement to Identify Stable Local Conformations One &#945;-Synuclein Monomer at a Time

Using spectroscopic rulers to track multiple conformations of single biomolecules and their dynamics have revolutionized the understanding of structural dynamics and its contributions to biology. While the FRET-based ruler reports on inter-dye distances in the 3-10 nm range, other spectroscopic techniques, such as protein-induced fluorescence enhancement (PIFE), report on the proximity between a dye and a protein surface in the shorter 0-3 nm range. Regardless of the method of choice, its use in measuring freely-diffusing biomolecules one at a time retrieves histograms of the experimental parameter yielding separate centrally-distributed sub-populations of biomolecules, where each sub-population represents either a single conformation that stayed unchanged within milliseconds, or multiple conformations that interconvert much faster than milliseconds, and hence an averaged-out sub-population. In single-molecule FRET, where the reported parameter in histograms is the inter-dye FRET efficiency, an intrinsically disordered protein, such as the &#945;-Synuclein monomer in buffer, was previously reported as exhibiting a single averaged-out sub-population of multiple conformations interconverting rapidly. While these past findings depend on the 3-10 nm range of the FRET-based ruler, we sought to put this protein to the test using single-molecule PIFE, where we track the fluorescence lifetime of site-specific sCy3-labeled &#945;-Synuclein proteins one at a time. Interestingly, using this shorter range spectroscopic proximity sensor, sCy3-labeled &#945;-Synuclein exhibits several lifetime sub-populations with distinctly different mean lifetimes that interconvert in 10-100 ms. These results show that while &#945;-Synuclein might be disordered globally, it nonetheless attains stable local structures. In summary, in this work we highlight the advantage of using different spectroscopic proximity sensors that track local or global structural changes one biomolecule at a time.

Utilizing Time-Resolved Protein-Induced Fluorescence Enhancement to Identify Stable Local Conformations One &amp;#945;-Synuclein Monomer at a Time

Time-resolved single-molecule protein-induced fluorescence enhancement is a useful fluorescence spectroscopic proximity sensor sensitive to local structural changes in proteins. Here we show it can be used to uncover stable local conformations in &#945;-Synuclein, which is otherwise known as globularly unstructured and unstable when measured using the longer range FRET ruler.

Using spectroscopic rulers to track multiple conformations of single biomolecules and their dynamics have revolutionized the understanding of structural ...