Name: preparation, characteristics, toxicity, and efficacy evaluation of the nasal self-assembled nanoemulsion tumor vaccine in vitro and in vivo
Uploaded: 2022-09-28T13:40:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation, Characteristics, Toxicity, and Efficacy Evaluation of the Nasal Self-Assembled Nanoemulsion Tumor Vaccine In Vitro and In Vivo at JoVE.com

This study was supported by No. 31670938, 32070924, 32000651 of the National Natural Science Foundation Program of China, No. 2014jcyjA0107 and No. 2019jcyjA-msxmx0159 of the Natural Science Foundation Project Program of Chongqing, No. 2020XBK24 and No. 2020XBK26 of the Army Medical University Special projects, and No. 202090031021 and No. 202090031035 of National Innovation and Entrepreneurship Program for college students.

The animal experiments were conducted in accordance with the Laboratory Animal&#8212;Guideline for ethical review of animal welfare (GB/T 35892-2018) and were approved by the Laboratory Animal Welfare and Ethics Committee of the Third Military Medical University.&#160;The mice were euthanized by an intraperitoneal injection of 100 mg/kg of 1% sodium pentobarbital.
1. Preparation of the I-OVA NE
<ol>
	<li>Admix 1 mg of monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) with 100 &#181;L of DMSO, v...

<ol>
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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+vaccine,+immunological+memory+and+cancer+cure.">In situ vaccine, immunological memory and cancer cure.</a> Human Vaccines &amp; Immunotherapeutics. 12 (1), 117-119 (2016).</li><li>Abd-Aziz, N., Poh, C. L., Ding, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+peptide-based+vaccines+for+cancer.">Development of peptide-based vaccines for cancer.</a> Journal of Oncology. 2022, 9749363 (2022).</li><li>Mochizuki, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunization+with+antigenic+peptides+complexed+with+beta-glucan+induces+potent+cytotoxic+T-lymphocyte+activity+in+combination+with+CpG-ODNs.">Immunization with antigenic peptides complexed with beta-glucan induces potent cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity in combination with CpG-ODNs.</a> Journal of Controlled Release. 220, 495-502 (2015).</li><li>Kalita, P., Tripathi, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methodological+advances+in+the+design+of+peptide-based+vaccines.">Methodological advances in the design of peptide-based vaccines.</a> Drug Discovery Today. 27 (5), 1367-1380 (2022).</li><li>Yang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+self-assembled+epitope+peptide+nanoemulsion+vaccine+targeting+nasal+mucosal+epithelial+cell+for+reinvigorating+CD8(+)+T+cell+immune+activity+and+inhibiting+tumor+progression.">A novel self-assembled epitope peptide nanoemulsion vaccine targeting nasal mucosal epithelial cell for reinvigorating CD8(+) T cell immune activity and inhibiting tumor progression.</a> International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 183, 1891-1902 (2021).</li><li>Ren, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=OVA-specific+CD8++T+cells+do+not+express+granzyme+B+during+anterior+chamber+associated+immune+deviation.">OVA-specific CD8+ T cells do not express granzyme B during anterior chamber associated immune deviation.</a> Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 244 (10), 1315-1321 (2006).</li><li>Suzuki, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+hyaluronic+acid-coated+polymeric+micelles+for+nasal+vaccine+delivery.">Preparation of hyaluronic acid-coated polymeric micelles for nasal vaccine delivery.</a> Biomaterials Science. 10 (8), 1920-1928 (2022).</li><li>Georas, S. 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Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+nasal+omicron+vaccine+booster+elicits+potent+neutralizing+antibody+response+against+emerging+SARS-CoV-2+variants.">A nasal omicron vaccine booster elicits potent neutralizing antibody response against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants.</a> Emerging Microbes &amp; Infections. 11 (1), 964-967 (2022).</li><li>Chai, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+functional+recovery+of+rat+transected+spinal+cord+by+peptide-grafted+PNIPAM+based+hydrogel.">Improved functional recovery of rat transected spinal cord by peptide-grafted PNIPAM based hydrogel.</a> Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 210, 112220 (2022).</li><li>Paiva Dos Santos, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production,+purification+and+characterization+of+an+elastin-like+polypeptide+containing+the+Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val+(IKVAV)+peptide+for+tissue+engineering+applications.">Production, purification and characterization of an elastin-like polypeptide containing the Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val (IKVAV) peptide for tissue engineering applications.</a> Journal of Biotechnology. 298, 35-44 (2019).</li><li>Okur, A. C., Erkoc, P., Kizilel, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+cancer+cells+via+tumor-homing+peptide+CREKA+functional+PEG+nanoparticles.">Targeting cancer cells via tumor-homing peptide CREKA functional PEG nanoparticles.</a> Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 147, 191-200 (2016).</li><li>Makidon, P. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pre-clinical+evaluation+of+a+novel+nanoemulsion-based+hepatitis+B+mucosal+vaccine.">Pre-clinical evaluation of a novel nanoemulsion-based hepatitis B mucosal vaccine.</a> PLoS One. 3 (8), 2954 (2008).</li><li>Lin, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oil-in-ionic+liquid+nanoemulsion-based+intranasal+delivery+system+for+influenza+split-virus+vaccine.">Oil-in-ionic liquid nanoemulsion-based intranasal delivery system for influenza split-virus vaccine.</a> Journal of Controlled Release. 346, 380-391 (2022).</li><li>O'Konek, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intranasal+nanoemulsion+vaccine+confers+long-lasting+immunomodulation+and+sustained+unresponsiveness+in+a+murine+model+of+milk+allergy.">Intranasal nanoemulsion vaccine confers long-lasting immunomodulation and sustained unresponsiveness in a murine model of milk allergy.</a> Allergy. 75 (4), 872-881 (2020).</li><li>Ahmed, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+nanoemulsion+vaccine+induces+mucosal+Interleukin-17+responses+and+confers+protection+upon+Mycobacterium+tuberculosis+challenge+in+mice.">A novel nanoemulsion vaccine induces mucosal Interleukin-17 responses and confers protection upon Mycobacterium tuberculosis challenge in mice.</a> Vaccine. 35 (37), 4983-4989 (2017).</li><li>Sun, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+systemic+and+mucosal+immunity+against+methicillin-resistant+Staphylococcus+aureus+infection+by+a+novel+nanoemulsion+adjuvant+vaccine.">Induction of systemic and mucosal immunity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection by a novel nanoemulsion adjuvant vaccine.</a> International Journal of Nanomedicine. 10, 7275-7290 (2015).</li><li>Chen, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tumor-associated-macrophage-membrane-coated+nanoparticles+for+improved+photodynamic+immunotherapy.">Tumor-associated-macrophage-membrane-coated nanoparticles for improved photodynamic immunotherapy.</a> Nano Letters. 21 (13), 5522-5531 (2021).</li><li>Prasanna, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Current+status+of+nanoscale+drug+delivery+and+the+future+of+nano-vaccine+development+for+leishmaniasis+-+A+review.">Current status of nanoscale drug delivery and the future of nano-vaccine development for leishmaniasis - A review.</a> Biomedicine &amp; Pharmacotherapy. 141, 111920 (2021).</li><li>George, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+defects+on+plate-shaped+silver+nanoparticles+contribute+to+its+hazard+potential+in+a+fish+gill+cell+line+and+zebrafish+embryos.">Surface defects on plate-shaped silver nanoparticles contribute to its hazard potential in a fish gill cell line and zebrafish embryos.</a> ACS Nano. 6 (5), 3745-3759 (2012).</li><li>Jafari Eskandari, M., Gostariani, R., Asadi Asadabad, M., Singh, D., Condurache-Bota, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transmission+Electron+Microscopy+of+Nanomaterials.">Transmission Electron Microscopy of Nanomaterials.</a> Electron Crystallography. , (2020).</li><li>Kontomaris, S. V., Stylianou, A., Malamou, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+force+microscopy+nanoindentation+method+on+collagen+fibrils.">Atomic force microscopy nanoindentation method on collagen fibrils.</a> Materials. 15 (7), 2477 (2022).</li><li>Zielinska, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymeric+nanoparticles:+Production,+characterization,+toxicology+and+ecotoxicology.">Polymeric nanoparticles: Production, characterization, toxicology and ecotoxicology.</a> Molecules. 25 (16), 3731 (2020).</li><li>Doncom, K. E. B., Blackman, L. D., Wright, D. B., Gibson, M. I., O'Reilly, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dispersity+effects+in+polymer+self-assemblies:+A+matter+of+hierarchical+control.">Dispersity effects in polymer self-assemblies: A matter of hierarchical control.</a> Chemical Society Reviews. 46 (14), 4119-4134 (2017).</li><li>Pei, M., Li, H., Zhu, Y., Lu, J., Zhang, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+evidence+of+oncofetal+antigen+and+TLR-9+agonist+co-delivery+by+alginate+nanovaccines+for+liver+cancer+immunotherapy.">In vitro evidence of oncofetal antigen and TLR-9 agonist co-delivery by alginate nanovaccines for liver cancer immunotherapy.</a> Biomaterials Science. 10 (11), 2865-2876 (2022).</li><li>Zhang, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Titanium+dioxide+nanoparticles+induced+reactive+oxygen+species+(ROS)+related+changes+of+metabolomics+signatures+in+human+normal+bronchial+epithelial+(BEAS-2B)+cells.">Titanium dioxide nanoparticles induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) related changes of metabolomics signatures in human normal bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells.</a> Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 444, 116020 (2022).</li><li>Kumar, V., Sharma, N., Maitra, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+and+in+vivo+toxicity+assessment+of+nanoparticles.">In vitro and in vivo toxicity assessment of nanoparticles.</a> International Nano Letters. 7 (4), 243-256 (2017).</li><li>Tong, Y. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+immunopotentiator,+ophiopogonin+D,+encapsulated+in+a+nanoemulsion+as+a+robust+adjuvant+to+improve+vaccine+efficacy.">An immunopotentiator, ophiopogonin D, encapsulated in a nanoemulsion as a robust adjuvant to improve vaccine efficacy.</a> Acta Biomaterialia. 77, 255-267 (2018).</li><li>Elliott, A. 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Nanovaccines functionalized with immunocyte membranes have great advantages in disease-targeted therapy, and the side effects are minimized by properties such as unique tumor tropism, the identification of specific targets, prolonged circulation, enhanced intercellular interactions, and low systemic toxicity. They can also be easily integrated with other treatment modules to treat cancers cooperatively16,20. Desirable attributes can be obtained by controllingphys...

As one of the most critical public health innovations, vaccines play a key role in fighting the global burden of human disease1. For example, at present, more than 120 candidate vaccines for COVID-19 diseases are being tested, some of which have been approved in many countries2. Recent reports state that cancer vaccines have effectively improved the progress of clinical cancer treatments because they direct the immune system of cancer patients to recognize antigens as foreign to the body3. Moreover, multiple T cell epitopes located inside or outside tumor cells can be used to design peptide vaccines, which have shown advantages in the treatment of metastatic cancers because of the lack of the significant toxicity associated with radiotherapy and chemotherapy4,5. Since the mid-1990s, preclinical and clinical trials for tumor treatment have been conducted mainly using antigen peptide vaccines, but few vaccines exhibit an adequate therapeutic effect on cancer patients6. Furthermore, cancer vaccines with peptide epitopes have poor immunogenicity and insufficient delivery efficiency, which may be due to the rapid degradation of extracellular peptides that diffuse rapidly from the site of administration, which leads to insufficient antigen uptake by immune cells7. Therefore, it is necessary to overcome these obstacles with vaccine delivery technology.
OVA257-264, the MHC class I-binding 257-264 epitope expressed as a fusion protein, is a frequently used model epitope8. In addition, OVA257-264 is crucial to the adaptive immune response against tumors, which depends on the cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response. It is mediated by antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in the tumor, which are induced by the OVA257-264 peptide. It is characterized by insufficient granzyme B, which is released by cytotoxic T cells, leading to the apoptosis of target cells8. However, free OVA257-264 peptide administration may induce little CTL activity because the uptake of these antigens occurs in nonspecific cells rather than antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The deficiency of appropriate immune stimulation results in CTL activity5. Therefore, the induction of efficacious CTL activity demands considerable advancement.
Owing to the barrier provided by epithelial cells and the continuous secretion of mucus, vaccine antigens are rapidly removed from the nasal mucous9,10. Developing an efficient vaccine vector that can pass through the mucosal tissue is crucial because the antigen-presenting cells are situated under the mucosal epithelium9. Intranasal injection of vaccines theoretically induces mucosal immunity to fight mucosal infection11. In addition, nasal delivery is an effective and safe administration method for vaccines due to its convenience, the avoidance of intestinal administration, and improved patient compliancy7. Therefore, nasal delivery is a good means of administration for the novel peptide epitope nanovaccine.
Several synthetic biomaterials have been devised to combine epitopes of cell-tissue and cell-cell interactions. Certain bioactive proteins, such as Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val (IKVAV), have been introduced as part of the structure of the hydrogel to confer bioactivity12. This peptide likely contributes to cell attachment, migration, and outgrowth13 and binds integrins &#945;3&#946;1 and &#945;6&#946;1 to interact with different cancer cell types. IKVAV is a cell adhesion peptide derived from the laminin basement membrane protein &#945;1 chain that was originally used to model the neural microenvironment and cause the neuronal differentiation14. Therefore, finding an efficient delivery vehicle for this novel vaccine is important for disease control.
Recently reported emulsion systems, such as W805EC and MF59, have also been compounded for the nasal cavity delivery of inactivated influenza vaccine or recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen and illustrated to trigger both mucosal and systemic immunity15. Nanoemulsions (NEs) have the advantages of easy administration and convenient co-formation with effective adjuvants compared with particulate mucosal delivery systems16. Nanoemulsion vaccines have been reported to alter the allergic phenotype in a sustained manner different from traditional desensitization, which results in long-term suppressive effects17. Others reported that nanoemulsions combined with Mtb-specific immunodominant antigens could induce potent mucosal cell responses and confer significant protection18. Therefore, a novel intranasal self-assembled nanovaccine with the synthetic peptide IKVAV-OVA257-264 (I-OVA, the peptide consisting of IKVAV bound to OVA257-264) was designed. It is important to assess this novel nanovaccine systematically.
The purpose of this protocol is to systematically evaluate the physicochemical characteristics, toxicity, and stability of the nanovaccine, detect whether antigen uptake and protective and therapeutic effects are enhanced using technical means, and elaborate on the main experimental contents. In this study, we established a series of protocols to study the physicochemical characteristics and stability, determine the magnitude of toxicity of the I-OVA NE to BEAS-2B cells by CCK-8, and observe the antigen-presenting ability of BEAS-2B cells to the vaccine using confocal microscopy, evaluate the release profiles of this novel nanovaccine in vivo and in vitro, and detect the protective and therapeutic effect of this vaccine by using an E.G7-OVA tumor-bearing mouse model.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well plates</td>
			<td>Corning Incorporated, USA</td>
			<td>CLS3922</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bio-Rad 6.0 microplate reader</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad Laboratories Incorporated Limited Co., CA, USA</td>
			<td>&#160;Bio-Rad 6.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCK-8 kits</td>
			<td>Dojindo, Japan</td>
			<td>CK04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge 5810 R</td>
			<td>Eppendorf, Germany&#160;</td>
			<td>5811000398</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA</td>
			<td>D9542</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Hyclone (Life Technology, USA)</td>
			<td>SH30088.03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FITC-labeled I-OVA</td>
			<td>Shanghai Botai 
			Biotechnology Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HF 90/240 Incubator</td>
			<td>Heal Force, Switzerland</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HPLC&#160;</td>
			<td>Shanghai Botai Biotechology Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>E2695</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon,Japan</td>
			<td>DSZ5000X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IPC-208</td>
			<td>Chong Qing University, China</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IVIS system&#160;</td>
			<td>Caliper Life Science Limited Company</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>JEM-1230 TEM</td>
			<td>JEOL Limited Company of Japan</td>
			<td>1230 TEM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Malvern NANO ZS</td>
			<td>Malvern Instruments Ltd., UK</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MPLA</td>
			<td>&#160;Invivogen 
			Lit. Co.</td>
			<td>tlrl-mpla</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neomycin Sulfate Ointment</td>
			<td>Shanghai CP General Pharmaceutical Co. , Ltd.</td>
			<td>H31022262</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OVA257&#8211;264</td>
			<td>Shanghai Botai 
			Biotechnology Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI 1640 medium</td>
			<td>Hyclone (Life Technology, USA)</td>
			<td>SH30809.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Synthetic peptide (I-OVA) conjugation of IKVAV-PA</td>
			<td>Shanghai Botai 
			Biotechnology Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss LSM800 laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss, Germany</td>
			<td>Zeiss LSM800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation, characteristics, toxicity, and efficacy evaluation of the nasal self-assembled nanoemulsion tumor vaccine in vitro and in vivo

Epitope peptides have attracted widespread attention in the field of tumor vaccines because of their safety, high specificity, and convenient production; in particular, some MHC I-restricted epitopes can induce effective cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity to clear tumor cells. Additionally, nasal administration is an effective and safe delivery technique for tumor vaccines due to its convenience and improved patient compliance. However, epitope peptides are unsuitable for nasal delivery because of their poor immunogenicity and lack of delivery efficiency. Nanoemulsions (NEs) are thermodynamically stable systems that can be loaded with antigens and delivered directly to the nasal mucosal surface. Ile-Lys-Val-Ala-Val (IKVAV) is the core pentapeptide of laminin, an integrin-binding peptide expressed by human respiratory epithelial cells. In this study, an intranasal self-assembled epitope peptide NE tumor vaccine containing the synthetic peptide IKVAV-OVA257-264 (I-OVA) was prepared by a low-energy emulsification method. The combination of IKVAV and OVA257-264 can enhance antigen uptake by nasal mucosal epithelial cells. Here, we establish a protocol to study the physicochemical characteristics by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS); stability in the presence of mucin protein; toxicity by examining the cell viability of BEAS-2B cells and the nasal and lung tissues of C57BL/6 mice; cellular uptake by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM); release profiles by imaging small animals in vivo; and the protective and therapeutic effect of the vaccine by using an E.G7 tumor-bearing model. We anticipate that the protocol will provide technical and theoretical clues for the future development of novel T cell epitope peptide mucosal vaccines.

According to the protocol, we completed the preparation and in vitro and in vivo experimental evaluation of the nasal tumor nanovaccine delivery. TEM, AFM, and DLS are effective means for the assessment of the basic characteristics of the surface zeta potential and the particle size of the nanovaccine (Figure 1). BEAS-2B epithelial cells are a useful screening model for the in vitro toxicity testing of nasal vaccines (Figure 2A). The m...

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Preparation, Characteristics, Toxicity, and Efficacy Evaluation of the Nasal Self-Assembled Nanoemulsion Tumor Vaccine In Vitro and In Vivo

Here, we present detailed methods for the preparation and evaluation of the nasal self-assembled nanoemulsion tumor vaccine in vitro and in vivo.

Preparation, Characteristics, Toxicity, and Efficacy Evaluation of the Nasal Self-Assembled Nanoemulsion Tumor Vaccine In Vitro and In Vivo

Epitope peptides have attracted widespread attention in the field of tumor vaccines because of their safety, high specificity, and convenient production; ...

Novel nanoemulsion vaccine has great advantages in disease tactic therapy. These set effects are minimized by properties such as unique tumor chopism, the identification of specific tactics, and the low systemic toxicity. We anticipate that the protocol will provide technical and theoretical clues for the future development of novel T-cell ectype peptide mucosal vaccines.Begin by mixing one milligram of monophosphorol lipid A with 100 microliters of DMSO. Vortex for five minutes and leave it to dissolve for four hours at room temperature. Quantitatively add TWEEN 80 and I-OVA.Mix the components and add squalene. Next, add 100 microliters of MPLA solution to the prepared mixture. To prepare the nano emulsion vaccine, add the mixed solution to water droplets at approximately 70%of the total volume and stir gently to obtain a transparent and easily flowing mixture.For in vitro assays, start with reviving the BEAS2B epithelial cells. Turn the water bath on and adjust the temperature to 37 degrees Celsius. Thaw the frozen cell vials quickly in a water bath, tempered at 37 degrees Celsius.After thawing, quickly pipette the cells into a 15 milliliter sterile centrifuge tube, and add two milliliters of the complete growth medium. Centrifuge the tube at 129 G for five minutes. Remove the supinatant and resuspend the cells in two milliliters of the complete growth medium.After centrifuging the cells once again, remove the supinatant and add six milliliters of complete growth medium to resuspend the cells. Then transfer the cells to a T25 culture flask and incubate at 37 degrees Celsius in a 5%carbon dioxide incubator. Once the cell density reaches 80%to 90%discard the culture medium and wash the cells twice with two milliliters of PBS.Add one milliliter of 0.25%tripsin to digest the cells for one to two minutes. When rounding of the cells is observed, immediately add four milliliters of the complete growth medium to neutralize the trypsin. Mix and aspirate the samples in a 15 milliliter sterile centrifuge tube.Centrifuge the samples at 129 G for five minutes. Remove the supinatant and resuspend the cells in one milliliter of RPMI 1640 complete medium. Use 20 microliters of the cell suspension for cell counting and dilute the cells to one times 10 to the fifth cells per milliliter.Then plate the BEAS2B cells at a density of one times 10 to the fourth cells per well in 96 well plates in 100 microliters of RPMI 1640 complete medium, and pre incubate the plates for 24 hours as demonstrated previously. At the end of the incubation, discard the supinatant and add 100 microliters of RPMI 1640 to each well of the 96 well plate. Add 100 microliters each of I-OVA nano emulsion, I-OVA mixed with BNE, and I-OVA pre-diluted with a complete growth medium at various final concentrations with BNE as a control and incubate for 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius.Once the incubation is complete, remove the medium, and transfer the plate to a dark place. Add 90 microliters of complete growth medium and 10 microliters of CCK8 solution to each well of the plate. Incubate the plate for two hours at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide.Measure the absorbance of each well at 450 nanometers using an enzyme labeled plate reader. Use 10 microliter pipette tips to perform nasal immunization of the mice with I-OVA, I-OVA plus BNE, and I-OVA NE for three days. Use BNE and PBA as the experimental control.Afterward, cut approximately three millimeter thick samples of nasal tissues with scissors and place them in 4%paraformaldehyde. Remove the lung tissues and fix the nasal and whole lung tissues in 4%paraformaldehyde for 24 hours. TEM and AFM are used for the assessment of basic characteristics of the surface zeta potential and the particle size of the nano vaccine.Particle sizes, polydispersity indexes, zeta potentials, and electrophoresis mobility of I-OVA NE in musin stability analyses are shown. The relative viability of BEAS2B cells is more than 80%in cultures exposed to different peptide concentrations of I-OVA, BNE+I-OVA, and I-OVA NE for 24 hours. The I-OVA EN group had no obvious mucosal toxicity, tissue damage, bleeding, or inflammatory cell infiltration.The epithelial BEAS2B cells captured more FITC labeled I-OVA NE than that of its water solution. The sustained release effect of I-OVA NE in vitro was analyzed using the IV-IS system. I-OVA NE vaccine had a sustained release effect compared to the aqueous solution of I-OVA.In the I-OVA NE group, the percent survival time is higher compared to other groups, and the tumor volume was significantly smaller, suggesting that it has a better preventive protection effect than the other groups. In the therapeutic model, the median survival time was significantly different between different groups. The tumor volume of the I-OVA NE group was significantly smaller than that in the I-OVA group.Stirring the mixture evenly is important in this procedure. Otherwise it'll reduce the efficiency of nanovaccines.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Human T Lymphocyte Isolation, Culture and Analysis of Migration In Vitro

The migration of T lymphocytes involves the adhesive interaction of cell surface integrins with ligands expressed on other cells or with extracellular matrix proteins. The precise spatiotemporal activation of integrins from a low affinity state to a high affinity state at the cell leading edge is important for T lymphocyte migration 1. Likewise, retraction of the cell trailing edge, or uropod, is a necessary step in maintaining persistent integrin-dependent T lymphocyte motility 2. Many therapeutic approaches to autoimmune or inflammatory diseases target integrins as a means to inhibit the excessive recruitment and migration of leukocytes 3. To study the molecular events that regulate human T lymphocyte migration, we have utilized an in vitro system to analyze cell migration on a two-dimensional substrate that mimics the environment that a T lymphocyte encounters during recruitment from the vasculature. T lymphocytes are first isolated from human donors and are then stimulated and cultured for seven to ten days. During the assay, T lymphocytes are allowed to adhere and migrate on a substrate coated with intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), a ligand for integrin LFA-1, and stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1). Our data show that T lymphocytes exhibit a migratory velocity of ~15 &mu;m/min. T lymphocyte migration can be inhibited by integrin blockade 1 or by inhibitors of the cellular actomyosin machinery that regulates cell migration 2.

Human T Lymphocyte Isolation, Culture and Analysis of Migration In Vitro

T lymphocyte migration occurs during homing to lymphoid organs, exit from the vasculature, and entering into peripheral tissues. Here, we describe a protocol that can be used to analyze T lymphocyte migration in vitro.

The migration of T lymphocytes involves the adhesive interaction of cell surface integrins with ligands expressed on other cells or with extracellular ...

Quantitative Analyses of all Influenza Type A Viral Hemagglutinins and Neuraminidases using Universal Antibodies in Simple Slot Blot Assays

Hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are two surface proteins of influenza viruses which are known to play important roles in the viral life cycle and the induction of protective immune responses1,2. As the main target for neutralizing antibodies, HA is currently used as the influenza vaccine potency marker and is measured by single radial immunodiffusion (SRID)3. However, the dependence of SRID on the availability of the corresponding subtype-specific antisera causes a minimum of 2-3 months delay for the release of every new vaccine. Moreover, despite evidence that NA also induces protective immunity4, the amount of NA in influenza vaccines is not yet standardized due to a lack of appropriate reagents or analytical method5. Thus, simple alternative methods capable of quantifying HA and NA antigens are desirable for rapid release and better quality control of influenza vaccines.
Universally conserved regions in all available influenza A HA and NA sequences were identified by bioinformatics analyses6-7. One sequence (designated as Uni-1) was identified in the only universally conserved epitope of HA, the fusion peptide6, while two conserved sequences were identified in neuraminidases, one close to the enzymatic active site (designated as HCA-2) and the other close to the N-terminus (designated as HCA-3)7. Peptides with these amino acid sequences were synthesized and used to immunize rabbits for the production of antibodies. The antibody against the Uni-1 epitope of HA was able to bind to 13 subtypes of influenza A HA (H1-H13) while the antibodies against the HCA-2 and HCA-3 regions of NA were capable of binding all 9 NA subtypes. All antibodies showed remarkable specificity against the viral sequences as evidenced by the observation that no cross-reactivity to allantoic proteins was detected. These universal antibodies were then used to develop slot blot assays to quantify HA and NA in influenza A vaccines without the need for specific antisera7,8. Vaccine samples were applied onto a PVDF membrane using a slot blot apparatus along with reference standards diluted to various concentrations. For the detection of HA, samples and standard were first diluted in Tris-buffered saline (TBS) containing 4M urea while for the measurement of NA they were diluted in TBS containing 0.01% Zwittergent as these conditions significantly improved the detection sensitivity. Following the detection of the HA and NA antigens by immunoblotting with their respective universal antibodies, signal intensities were quantified by densitometry. Amounts of HA and NA in the vaccines were then calculated using a standard curve established with the signal intensities of the various concentrations of the references used. 
Given that these antibodies bind to universal epitopes in HA or NA, interested investigators could use them as research tools in immunoassays other than the slot blot only.

A simple slot blot method was developed for the quantification of influenza viral hemagglutinin and neuraminidase using universal antibodies targeting their most conserved sequences identified through bioinformatics analyses. This innovative approach may provide a useful alternative to quantitative determination of all viral hemagglutinin and neuraminidase.

Hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are two surface proteins of influenza viruses which are known to play important roles in the viral life cycle ...

A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target conserved portions of the HIV-1 genome that escape with difficulty. Sequence changes attributed to cellular immune pressure arise across the genome during infection, and if found within conserved regions of the genome such as Gag, can affect the ability of the virus to replicate in vitro. Transmission of HLA-linked polymorphisms in Gag to HLA-mismatched recipients has been associated with reduced set point viral loads. We hypothesized this may be due to a reduced replication capacity of the virus. Here we present a novel method for assessing the in vitro replication of HIV-1 as influenced by the gag gene isolated from acute time points from subtype C infected Zambians. This method uses restriction enzyme based cloning to insert the gag gene into a common subtype C HIV-1 proviral backbone, MJ4. This makes it more appropriate to the study of subtype C sequences than previous recombination based methods that have assessed the in vitro replication of chronically derived gag-pro sequences. Nevertheless, the protocol could be readily modified for studies of viruses from other subtypes. Moreover, this protocol details a robust and reproducible method for assessing the replication capacity of the Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses on a CEM-based T cell line. This method was utilized for the study of Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses derived from 149 subtype C acutely infected Zambians, and has allowed for the identification of residues in Gag that affect replication. More importantly, the implementation of this technique has facilitated a deeper understanding of how viral replication defines parameters of early HIV-1 pathogenesis such as set point viral load and longitudinal CD4+ T cell decline.

A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses

HIV-1 pathogenesis is defined by both viral characteristics and host genetic factors. Here we describe a robust method that allows for reproducible measurements to assess the impact of the gag gene sequence variation on the in vitro replication capacity of the virus.

The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target ...

In Vitro Analysis of Myd88-mediated Cellular Immune Response to West Nile Virus Mutant Strain Infection

An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in mice. Recently, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling was shown to be important for initial T cell priming and memory T cell development during WNV NS4B-P38G mutant infection. In this study, two flow cytometry-based methods &#8211; an in vitro T cell priming assay and an intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) &#8211; were utilized to assess dendritic cells (DCs) and T cell functions. In the T cell priming assay, cell proliferation was analyzed by flow cytometry following co-culture of DCs from both groups of mice with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) - labeled CD4+ T cells of OTII transgenic mice. This approach provided an accurate determination of the percentage of proliferating CD4+ T cells with significantly improved overall sensitivity than the traditional assays with radioactive reagents. A microcentrifuge tube system was used in both cell culture and cytokine staining procedures of the ICS protocol. Compared to the traditional tissue culture plate-based system, this modified procedure was easier to perform at biosafety level (BL) 3 facilities. Moreover, WNV- infected cells were treated with paraformaldehyde in both assays, which enabled further analysis outside BL3 facilities. Overall, these in vitro immunological assays can be used to efficiently assess cell-mediated immune responses during WNV infection.

In Vitro Analysis of Myd88-mediated Cellular Immune Response to West Nile Virus Mutant Strain Infection

Two flow cytometry-based methods &#8211; an in vitro T cell priming assay and intracellular cytokine staining were utilized to measure antigen presenting capacity of dendritic cells and antigen-specific T cell responses to a West Nile virus mutant infection in mice.

An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in ...

Evaluation of the Efficacy And Toxicity of RNAs Targeting HIV-1 Production for Use in Gene or Drug Therapy

Small RNA therapies targeting post-integration steps in the HIV-1 replication cycle are among the top candidates for gene therapy and have the potential to be used as drug therapies for HIV-1 infection. Post-integration inhibitors include ribozymes, short hairpin (sh) RNAs, small interfering (si) RNAs, U1 interference (U1i) RNAs and RNA aptamers. Many of these have been identified using transient co-transfection assays with an HIV-1 expression plasmid and some have advanced to clinical trials. In addition to measures of efficacy, small RNAs have been evaluated for their potential to affect the expression of human RNAs, alter cell growth and/or differentiation, and elicit innate immune responses. In the protocols described here, a set of transient transfection assays designed to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of RNA molecules targeting post-integration steps in the HIV-1 replication cycle are described. We have used these assays to identify new ribozymes and optimize the format of shRNAs and siRNAs targeting HIV-1 RNA. The methods provide a quick set of assays that are useful for screening new anti-HIV-1 RNAs and could be adapted to screen other post-integration inhibitors of HIV-1 replication.

Methods to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of RNA molecules targeting post-integration steps of the HIV-1 replication cycle are described. These methods are useful for screening new molecules and optimizing the format of existing ones.

Small RNA therapies targeting post-integration steps in the HIV-1 replication cycle are among the top candidates for gene therapy and have the potential ...

Quantifying Human Monocyte Chemotaxis In Vitro and Murine Lymphocyte Trafficking In Vivo

Chemotaxis is migration along a specific chemical gradient1. Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that promote cellular trafficking with anatomic and temporal specificity2. Chemotaxis is a critical function of lymphocytes and other immune cells that can be quantitatively assessed in vitro. This manuscript describes methods that permit the evaluation of chemotaxis, both in vitro and in vivo, for diverse cell types including cell lines and native cells. The in vitro, plate-based format permits the comparison of several conditions simultaneously in real-time, and can be completed within 1-4 h. In vitro assay conditions can be manipulated to introduce agonists and antagonists, as well as differentiate chemotaxis from chemokinesis, which is random movement. For in vivo trafficking assessments, immune cells can be labeled with multiple fluorescent dyes and used for adoptive transfer. The differential labeling of cells allows for mixed cell populations to be introduced into the same animal, thereby decreasing variance and reducing the number of animals required for an adequately powered experiment. Migration into lymphoid tissue occurs in as little as 1 h, and multiple tissue compartments can be sampled. Flow cytometry following tissue harvest allows for a rapid and quantitative analysis of the migratory patterns of multiple cell types.

Quantifying Human Monocyte Chemotaxis In Vitro and Murine Lymphocyte Trafficking In Vivo

Protocols for quantitative assessment of lymphocyte chemotaxis and migration are important tools for immunology research. Here, an in vitro protocol is described that permits real-time, multiplexed evaluation of cell migration, as well as a complementary in vivo technique enabling tracking of native cells to spleen.

Chemotaxis is migration along a specific chemical gradient1. Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that promote cellular trafficking with anatomic and ...

Evaluation of Host-Pathogen Responses and Vaccine Efficacy in Mice

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a striking increase in life expectancy around the globe. Nonetheless, determining vaccine efficacy remains a challenge. Emerging evidence suggests that the current acellular vaccine (aPV) for Bordetella pertussis (B. pertussis) induces suboptimal immunity. Therefore, a major challenge is designing a next-generation vaccine that induces protective immunity without the adverse side effects of a whole-cell vaccine (wPV). Here we describe a protocol that we used to test the efficacy of a promising, novel adjuvant that skews immune responses to a protective Th1/Th17 phenotype and promotes a better clearance of a B. pertussis challenge from the murine respiratory tract. This article describes the protocol for mouse immunization, bacterial inoculation, tissue harvesting, and analysis of immune responses. Using this method, within our model, we have successfully elucidated crucial mechanisms elicited by a promising, next-generation acellular pertussis vaccine. This method can be applied to any infectious disease model in order to determine vaccine efficacy.

Here we present an elegant protocol for in vivo evaluation of vaccine effectiveness and host immune responses. This protocol can be adapted for vaccine models that study viral, bacterial, or parasitic pathogens.

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a ...

In Vitro ELISA Test to Evaluate Rabies Vaccine Potency

The growing global concern for the animal welfare is encouraging manufacturers and the National Control Laboratories (OMCLs) to follow the 3Rs strategy for the Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement of the laboratory animal testing. The development of in vitro approaches is recommended at the WHO and European levels as alternatives to the NIH test for evaluating the rabies vaccine potency. At the surface of the rabies virus (RABV) particle, trimers of glycoprotein constitute the major immunogen to induce Viral Neutralizing Antibodies (VNAbs). An ELISA test, where Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies (mAb-D1) recognize the trimeric form of the glycoprotein, has been developed to determine the contents of the native folded trimeric glycoprotein along with the production of the vaccine batches. This in vitro potency test demonstrated a good concordance with the NIH test and has been found suitable in collaborative trials by RABV vaccine manufacturers and OMCLs. Avoidance of animal use is an achievable objective in the near future.
The method presented is based on an indirect ELISA sandwich immunocapture using the mAb-D1 which recognizes the antigenic sites III (aa 330 to 338) of the trimeric RABV glycoprotein, i.e., the immunogenic RABV antigen. mAb-D1 is used for both coating and detection of glycoprotein trimers present in the vaccine batch. Since the epitope is recognized because of its conformational properties, the potentially denatured glycoprotein (less immunogenic) cannot be captured and detected by the mAb-D1. The vaccine to be tested is incubated in a plate sensitized with the mAb-D1. Bound trimeric RABV glycoproteins are identified by adding the mAb-D1 again, labeled with peroxidase and then revealed in the presence of substrate and chromogen. Comparison of the absorbance measured for the tested vaccine and the reference vaccine allows for the determination of the immunogenic glycoprotein content.

Here we describe an indirect ELISA sandwich immunocapture to determine the immunogenic glycoprotein contents in rabies vaccines. This test uses a neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody (mAb-D1) recognizing glycoprotein trimers. It is an alternative to the in vivo NIH test to follow the consistency of vaccine potency during production.

The growing global concern for the animal welfare is encouraging manufacturers and the National Control Laboratories (OMCLs) to follow the 3Rs strategy ...

In Vitro Cellular Activity Evaluation of the Nanoemulsion Vaccine Adjuvant Ophiopogonin D

As a principal ingredient of vaccines, adjuvants can directly induce or enhance the powerful, widespread, innate, and adaptive immune responses associated with antigens. Ophiopogonin D (OP-D), a purified component extracted from the plant Ophiopogon japonicus, has been found to be useful as a vaccine adjuvant. The problems of the low solubility and toxicity of OP-D can be effectively overcome by using a low-energy emulsification method to prepare nanoemulsion ophiopogonin D (NOD). In this article, a series of in vitro protocols for cellular activity evaluation are examined. The cytotoxic effects of L929 were determined using a cell counting kit-8 assay. Then, the secreted cytokine levels and corresponding immune cell numbers after the stimulation and culture of splenocytes from immunized mice were detected by ELISA and ELISpot methods. In addition, the antigen uptake ability in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs), which were isolated from C57BL/6 mice and matured after incubation with GM-CSF plus IL-4, was observed by laser scanning confocal microscopy (CLSM). Importantly, macrophage activation was confirmed by measuring the levels of IL-1&#946;, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;) cytokines by ELISA kits after coculturing peritoneal macrophages (PMs) from blank mice with the adjuvant for 24 h. It is hoped that this protocol will provide other researchers with direct and effective experimental approaches to evaluate the cellular response efficacies of novel vaccine adjuvants.

In Vitro Cellular Activity Evaluation of the Nanoemulsion Vaccine Adjuvant Ophiopogonin D

The protocol presents detailed methods for evaluating whether the nanoemulsion ophiopogonin D adjuvant promotes effective cellular immune responses.

As a principal ingredient of vaccines, adjuvants can directly induce or enhance the powerful, widespread, innate, and adaptive immune responses associated ...

Detection of Polyfunctional T Cells in Children Vaccinated with Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine via the Flow Cytometry Technique

T cell-mediated immunity plays an important role in controlling flavivirus infection, either after vaccination or after natural infection. The "quality" of a T cell needs to be assessed by function, and higher function is associated with more powerful immune protection. T cells that can simultaneously produce two or more cytokines or chemokines at the single-cell level are called polyfunctional T cells (TPFs), which mediate immune responses through a variety of molecular mechanisms to express degranulation markers (CD107a) and secrete interferon (IFN)-&#947;, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-&#945;, interleukin (IL)-2, or macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1&#945;. There is increasing evidence that TPFs are closely related to the maintenance of long-term immune memory and protection and that their increased proportion is an important marker of protective immunity and is important in the effective control of viral infection and reactivation. This evaluation applies not only to specific immune responses but also to the assessment of cross-reactive immune responses. Here, taking the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) as an example, the detection method and flow cytometry color scheme of JEV-specific TPFs produced by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of children vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis were tested to provide a reference for similar studies.

Detection of Polyfunctional T Cells in Children Vaccinated with Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine via the Flow Cytometry Technique

The present protocol combines ex vivo stimulation and flow cytometry to analyze polyfunctional T cell (TPF)&#160;profiles in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) within Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV)-vaccinated children. The detection method and flow cytometry color scheme of JEV-specific TPFs were tested to provide a reference for similar studies.

T cell-mediated immunity plays an important role in controlling flavivirus infection, either after vaccination or after natural infection. The "quality" ...