This research has been supported by grants from the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders of the National Institutes of Health, the Kellogg Foundation, and private donations from Bridget Sperl and John McCormick. TSLIM has been developed with the excellent assistance of Matthias Hillenbrand, Kerstin John, Meike Lawin, Michel Layher, Tobias Schroeter, Peter Schacht, Oliver Dannberg, and Julian Wuester from the Technical University of Illmenau, Germany, supervision by their mentors (Stefan Sinzinger and Rene Theska) and James Leger.

All the procedures and the use of live animals have been reviewed and approved (Protocol ID #2010-38573A) by the University of Minnesota Institutional Care and Use Committee (IACUC) and investigators who use these animals have been thoroughly trained and tested by the Research Animal Resources (RAR) Veterinarians before they have access to the animal facilities. Both male and female mice were used in this study.
1. Cochlea removal for fixation and tissue processing for imaging</...

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	<li>Deafness and hearing loss. World Health Organization Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/deafness-and-hearing-loss">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/deafness-and-hearing-loss</a> (2021)</li><li>Vater, M., K&#246;ssl, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+aspects+of+cochlear+functional+organization+in+mammals.">Comparative aspects of cochlear functional organization in mammals.</a> Hearing Research. 273 (1-2), 89-99 (2011).</li><li>Santi, P. A., Blair, A., Bohne, B. A., Lukkes, J., Nietfeld, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+digital+cytocochleogram.">The digital cytocochleogram.</a> Hearing Research. 192 (1-2), 75-82 (2004).</li><li>Voie, A. H., Burns, D. H., Spelman, F. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orthogonal-plane+fluorescence+optical+sectioning:+three-dimensional+imaging+of+macroscopic+biological+specimens.">Orthogonal-plane fluorescence optical sectioning: three-dimensional imaging of macroscopic biological specimens.</a> Journal of Microscopy. 170, 229-236 (1993).</li><li>Voie, A. H., Spelman, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+reconstruction+of+the+cochlea+from+two-dimensional+images+of+optical+sections.">Three-dimensional reconstruction of the cochlea from two-dimensional images of optical sections.</a> Computerized Medical Imaging and Graphics. 19 (5), 377-384 (1995).</li><li>Huisken, J., Swoger, J., Del Bene, F., Wittbrodt, J., Stelzer, E. H. 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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thin-sheet+laser+imaging+microscopy+for+optical+sectioning+of+thick+tissues.">Thin-sheet laser imaging microscopy for optical sectioning of thick tissues.</a> BioTechniques. 46 (4), 287-294 (2009).</li><li>Schr&#246;ter, T. J., Johnson, S. B., John, K., Santi, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scanning+thin-sheet+laser+imaging+microscopy+(sTSLIM)+with+structured+illumination+and+HiLo+background+rejection.">Scanning thin-sheet laser imaging microscopy (sTSLIM) with structured illumination and HiLo background rejection.</a> Biomedical Optics Express. 3 (1), 170-177 (2012).</li><li>Keller, P. J., Schmidt, A. D., Wittbrodt, J., Stelzer, E. H. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reconstruction+of+zebrafish+early+embryonic+development+by+scanned+light+sheet+microscopy.">Reconstruction of zebrafish early embryonic development by scanned light sheet microscopy.</a> Science. 322 (5904), 1065-1069 (2008).</li><li>Buytaert, J. A. N., Dirckx, J. J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+and+quantitative+resolution+measurements+of+an+optical+virtual+sectioning+three-dimensional+imaging+technique+for+biomedical+specimens,+featuring+two-micrometer+slicing+resolution.">Design and quantitative resolution measurements of an optical virtual sectioning three-dimensional imaging technique for biomedical specimens, featuring two-micrometer slicing resolution.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 12 (1), 014039 (2007).</li><li>Spalteholz, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> On making human and animal preparations transparent. , (1914).</li><li>Johnson, S., Schmitz, H., Santi, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TSLIM+imaging+and+a+morphometric+analysis+of+the+mouse+spiral+ganglion.">TSLIM imaging and a morphometric analysis of the mouse spiral ganglion.</a> Hearing Research. 278 (1-2), 34-42 (2011).</li><li>Santi, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organ+of+Corti+surface+preparations+for+computer-assisted+morphometry.">Organ of Corti surface preparations for computer-assisted morphometry.</a> Hearing Research. 24 (3), 179-187 (1986).</li><li>Brown, D., Pastras, C., Curthoys, I., Southwell, C., Van Roon, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endolymph+movement+visualized+with+light+sheet+fluorescence+microscopy+in+an+acute+hydrops+model.">Endolymph movement visualized with light sheet fluorescence microscopy in an acute hydrops model.</a> Hearing Research. 339, 112-124 (2016).</li><li>White, J. A., Burgess, B. J., Hall, R. D., Nadol, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pattern+of+degeneration+of+the+spiral+ganglion+cell+and+its+processes+in+the+C57BL/6J+mouse.">Pattern of degeneration of the spiral ganglion cell and its processes in the C57BL/6J mouse.</a> Hearing Research. 141 (1-2), 12-18 (2000).</li><li>Grierson, K. E., Hickman, T. T., Liberman, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dopaminergic+and+cholinergic+innervation+in+the+mouse+cochlea+after+noise-induced+or+age-related+synaptopathy.">Dopaminergic and cholinergic innervation in the mouse cochlea after noise-induced or age-related synaptopathy.</a> Hearing Research. 422, 108533 (2022).</li></ol>

Optical sectioning by light sheet microscopy for examination of cochlear structures is not mechanically destructive like other more traditional histological methods, and it provides a complete digital view of cochlear structures relative to one another. Previous methods such as surface preparations of the organ of Corti14 provided a map of hair cell loss along the length of the basilar membrane, but SGN loss could not be assessed since the tissue had been dissected away to reveal the organ of Cort...

The cochlea is the peripheral sensory organ for hearing in mammals. It has a complex spiral anatomy of repeating sensory and supporting cells that are anatomically specialized to detect sound vibrations and transmit them to the brain for the perception of hearing. The main sensory elements are the inner and outer hair cells and their innervating nerve fibers whose cell bodies compose the spiral ganglion, which resides within Rosenthal&#39;s canal (Figure 1). These sensory and neural structures are tonotopically arranged such that high-frequency sounds are transduced in the cochlear base and low-frequency sounds are transduced in the cochlea apex2. An anatomical map of this sensory cell distribution along the spiral length of the supporting basilar membrane is called a cytocochleogram3 and can be compared with hearing loss as a function of frequency as depicted in an audiogram.
The membranous labyrinth of the cochlea, which is surrounded by dense bone, makes it technically difficult to examine more than one cochlear structure at a time. Therefore, the rationale for developing a light-sheet microscope is to produce well-aligned serial sections of the complete cochlea so that all cochlear structures can be examined relative to one another in 3D reconstructions. Voie et al.4 and Voie and Spelman5 designed the first light-sheet microscope, called orthogonal plane fluorescence optical sectioning (OPFOS) microscope, to optically section the whole cochlea. However, this microscope was never commercially developed; so, our aim was to construct a light sheet microscope called a thin sheet laser imaging microscope (TSLIM; Figure 2). The design and construction details for TSLIM have previously been published8. TSLIM made several improvements over the OPFOS, including using a low-light digital camera versus a CCD camera for image collection, optically encoded micropositioners for accurate and reproducible movement of the specimen through the light-sheet, use of a commercially available, optically clear specimen chamber, and Rhodamine staining in ethanol rather than in the clearing solution to prevent stain precipitation within the tissue. Commercial development of light-sheet microscopes such as SPIM6 have focused on high-resolution imaging of live, small transparent specimens but are unsuitable for whole cochlear imaging as they lack adequate working distance. A review of the development of other light-sheet microscopes was published by Santi7. TSLIM&#39;s primary advantage over other histological methods to examine the cochlea is to optically section tissues for 3D reconstruction while preserving the integrity of the specimen so that it can be used by other histological methods. Another advantage of TSLIM imaging is that only a thin light-sheet produced by a laser is exposed to the tissue, compared with whole tissue thickness exposure to the laser as in confocal microscopy. Tissue clearing to minimize light scatter and the fact that only a small portion of the tissue is exposed to the laser results in minimal fluorochrome fading (photobleaching) with light-sheet laser imaging. However, the process of fixation, dehydration, and clearing does alter the morphology of cochlear structures and results in tissue shrinkage compared with living tissue. The actual amount of tissue shrinkage that occurs was not determined.
TSLIM was developed by Shane Johnson and eight German optical engineering students (see Acknowledgements). TSLIM construction details were provided by Santi et al.8 and a scanning version (sTSLIM) by Schr&#246;ter et al.9. TSLIM functions as a nondestructive microtome to optically section specimens and as a microscope to collect 2D serial sections through the full width and thickness of the cochlea. TSLIM can image both small (mm) and large (cm), thick specimens. Lenses are air mounted to allow for long working distances with collection objectives of 1x and 2x on a dissection microscope. The dissection microscope also has zoom optics that allow TSLIM to resolve subcellular and synaptic structures on cells. TSLIM is equipped with both a blue (473 nm) and green (532 nm) laser for illumination that allows for a variety of fluorescent probes to be used for imaging. The goal of TSLIM is to produce well-aligned 2D optical sections through a whole cochlea for a complete digital reconstruction of cochlear tissues. Since it is a fluorescent method, ligands and immunohistochemistry can also be used to identify specific cochlear structures.
Initially, a cylindrical lens was used to produce two opposed Gaussian light sheets, but it produced absorption imaging artifacts. Due to the work of Keller et al.10, the fixed cylindrical lens was replaced by a scanning galvanometer mirror to produce the light sheet9. In addition, since the center of the light sheet is the thinnest at the beam waist, sTSLIM 2D images are produced by collecting a composite of X-axis columns of data across the specimen&#39;s width (Figure 3). This method was first described by Buytaert and Dircks11. TSLIM custom software to drive and collect images was developed using a graphical program for instrument control. The light sheet travels through the specimen and illuminates a fluorescent plane within the tissue. This fluorescent plane is projected orthogonally through the transparent specimen and is collected by a dissection microscope. Optically encoded micropositioners allow scanning through the beam waist in the X-axis to collect a single composite 2D image and, subsequently, the Z-axis micropositioner moves the specimen to a deeper plane within the tissue to obtain a stack of serial, sectioned 2D images (Video 1, Figure 4). A stack of translational images is collected through the entire width, thickness, and length of the cochlea, and stitching of images is not required (Video 2). The image stack is transferred to another computer and loaded into a 3D rendering program for 3D reconstruction and quantification. The image stacks contain all the digital information about the morphology of a cochlea at the resolution of the microscope. However, if a higher resolution is required, the intact cochlea can be further processed by destructive histological methods such as microtome sectioning, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy.
The 3D rendering program is used to segment different cochlear structures for 3D rendering and quantitative analysis. For segmentation, each structure in every 2D image of the stack is traced using a different color by a graphics tablet and pen (Figure 5). To date, 20 different cochlear structures have been segmented (Figure 6). After segmentation, a variety of 3D analyses can be performed. For example, 3D rendering software can virtually resection the cochlea in any plane along the structure&#39;s centroid. Video 3 shows sectioning tangential to the organ of Corti, which reveals the hair cells along the length of the basilar membrane. This process first requires manual segmentation of the structure of interest. Next, the structure&#39;s centroid is calculated based on the least squares fit of spline points placed along the center of the structure from its base to its apex, thus allowing an approximation of the structure&#39;s length (Video 4). A similar process called skeletonization can be used to visualize the radial width of the structure along its length using a color map (Video 4). The total volume of each structure is calculated by the program after segmentation, but relative distances can also be quantified and visualized with color maps in a 3D rendering software (Figure 7). Segmented structures can also be exported to produce enlarged, solid-plastic model renderings (Figure 8). In addition, semi-automated cell counting can also be performed using 3D rendering software (Figure 9). Immunohistochemistry and ligand binding can be used to stain specific cochlear structures and these structures can be isolated from other cochlear structures for morphometrical assessment such as producing a cytocochleogram (Figure 10). Length, width, surface, volume, and number of all cochlear structures can be determined from the 3D models, making this approach ideal for mapping cochlear damage to functional impairments. Specifically, cochlear damage due to aging, noise-induced trauma, or other insults can be shown and quantified in 3D cochlear reconstructions from 2D optical sections. Once a cochlea has been digitized there are numerous imaging algorithms that can be used to assess cochlear damage of any tissue within the cochlea in the anatomical registry to other cochlear tissues.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Amira 3D Rendering Software</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
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			<td>Address: 501 90th Ave NW, Coon Rapids, MN 55433</td>
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			<td>benzyl benzoate (W213810)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Inc.&#160;</td>
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			<td>Address: PO Box, 14508, St. Louis, MO 68178</td>
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			<td>Bondic&#160;</td>
			<td>Bondic&#160;</td>
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			<td>Address: 235 Industrial Parkway S., Unit 18 Aurora, ON L4G 3V5 Canada</td>
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			<td>Ethanol 95% and 100%&#160;</td>
			<td>University of Minnesota</td>
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			<td>Address: General Storehouse, Minneapolis, MN 55455</td>
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			<td>Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt dihydrate (EDTA)&#160; (E5134)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Inc.&#160;</td>
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			<td>National Instruments</td>
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			<td>Address: 11500 N Mopac Expwy Austin, TX 78759-3504</td>
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			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Inc.&#160;</td>
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			<td>Address: PO Box, 14508, St. Louis, MO 68178</td>
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			<td>Olympus MVX10 dissection microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus Corp</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Address: 3500 Corporate Parkway, Center Valley, PA 18034</td>
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			<td>Rhodamine B isothiocynate, (283924)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Inc.&#160;</td>
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			<td>Starna Cells</td>
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</table>

imaging the aging cochlea with light-sheet fluorescence microscopy

Deafness is the most common sensory impairment, affecting approximately 5% or 430 million people worldwide as per the World Health Organization1. Aging or presbycusis is a primary cause of sensorineural hearing loss and is characterized by damage to hair cells, spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs), and the stria vascularis. These structures reside within the cochlea, which has a complex, spiral-shaped anatomy of membranous tissues suspended in fluid and surrounded by bone. These properties make it technically difficult to investigate and quantify histopathological changes. To address this need, we developed a light-sheet microscope (TSLIM) that can image and digitize the whole cochlea to facilitate the study of structure-function relationships in the inner ear. Well-aligned serial sections of the whole cochlea result in a stack of images for three-dimensional (3D) volume rendering and segmentation of individual structures for 3D visualization and quantitative analysis (i.e., length, width, surface, volume, and number). Cochleae require minimal processing steps (fixation, decalcification, dehydration, staining, and optical clearing), all of which are compatible with subsequent high-resolution imaging by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Since all the tissues are present in the stacks, each structure can be assessed individually or relative to other structures. In addition, since imaging uses fluorescent probes, immunohistochemistry and ligand binding can be used to identify specific structures and their 3D volume or distribution within the cochlea. Here we used TSLIM to examine cochleae from aged mice to quantify the loss of hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons. In addition, advanced analyses (e.g., cluster analysis) were used to visualize local reductions of spiral ganglion neurons in Rosenthal&#39;s canal along its 3D volume. These approaches demonstrate TSLIM microscopy&#39;s ability to quantify structure-function relationships within and between cochleae.

Since the theme of this special issue is imaging the effects of aging in the cochlea, a young (3-month-old, HS2479, CBA strain mouse) and aged (23-month-old, HS2521, C57 strain mouse) cochleae will be used as examples. It should be noted that TSLIM is capable of imaging a variety of specimens, including cochleae from humans, mammals, other rodents, and fish, as well as other organs such as the brain.
Johnson et al. 13 published an article on SGNs in young (3-week-old) C...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Imaging the Aging Cochlea with Light-Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy at JoVE.com

Imaging the Aging Cochlea with Light-Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy

A light-sheet microscope was developed to image and digitize whole cochlea.

Deafness is the most common sensory impairment, affecting approximately 5% or 430 million people worldwide as per the World Health Organization1. Aging or ...

We have developed a light-sheet microscope which can digitize the whole cochlea. This microscope has air-mounted objectives with a long working distance that can image small mouse cochleas up to a large human temporal bone. It serially sections the cochlea with a laser beam without causing any mechanical destruction.Our imaging method can be used to assess pathological changes in the cochlea, such as the loss of hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons due to aging. After euthanizing and decapitating a mouse, make a dorsal-ventral incision through the brain to hemisect the skull. Remove the brain and identify the round bulla in the basoventral part of the skull.Open the bulla with rongeurs. Then, visualize and remove the cochlea. Under a dissection microscope at five times magnification, puncture the oval window and remove the stapes with a sharp pick.Then, insert a pick into the round window to puncture the membrane. To perform fixation, cover the opened round window with the cut tip of an infusion set which is attached to a one-milliliter syringe filled with two milliliters of formalin. Slowly infuse formalin through the perilymphatic spaces of a cochlea over a two-minute period, ensuring that formalin is exiting the cochlea via the opened oval window.Trim excess tissue off the cochlea. Immerse it in a bottle containing 10%formalin and place it on a rotator overnight. For decalcification, rinse the cochlea in PBS thrice for five minutes each.Immerse in a bottle containing 10%solution of EDTA. Incubate it for four days with rotation, changing the solution daily. Then, perfuse the cochlea with PBS thrice and immerse for 15 minutes between changes to remove all EDTA.After washing, dehydrate the cochlea with ascending concentrations of ethanol for 30 minutes in each concentration. Stain the whole cochlea by immersion in rhodamine B solution overnight with rotation. Remove excess dye from the cochlea with two changes of 100%ethanol with incubation for five minutes for each change.Transfer the stained cochlea into two changes of Spalteholz solution for 30 minutes in each change. Leave overnight in the clearing solution with rotation. Attach the cochlea to a specimen rod at the oval and round window membrane end.Ensure that the clearing solution remains within the cochlea and bubbles are not formed. Attach the oval and round window ends of the wet cochlea to the dry specimen rod using UV activating glue. Cure the UV glue for 10 seconds by moving around the cochlea with a UV light.Suspend the cochlea into the imaging chamber in optically-clear quartz fluorometer cell filled with Spalteholz solution with the specimen rod attached to a rotating holder that is also attached to X/Z translation stage. Then, use a custom designed program to move the specimen through the light-sheet in the X-axis and Z steps and make a stack of 2D images throughout the cochlea. To process the image, transfer the image stack to another computer and load it into a 3D rendering program for 3D reconstruction and quantification.Direct volume rendering of a mouse cochlea showed the oval and round windows, organ of Corti with hair cells, Rosenthal's canal was segmented and volume rendered, and showed spiral ganglion neurons, or SGNs, along its length. Using TSLIM, the cochlea of a three-month-old young mouse and a 23-month-old mouse were imaged and counted for SGNs. SGN cell counts as a function of Rosenthal's canal distance depicted in a linear plot showed greater SGNs in the younger animal in the middle and apical ends of the cochlea as compared to the older animal.This apparent loss of SGNs was visualized by using cluster analysis and 3D rendering software. SGN density differences were depicted on a color scale where high-density clusters are yellow and blue represents lower density regions. The cluster analysis clearly depicted the regions of lower cell density along the length of Rosenthal's canal.Light-sheet microscopy is designed to produce a well-aligned stack of images from which 3D volume renderings of structures can be produced. 3D rendering programs allow for the quantitative assessment of structures and anatomical relationships among different structures. However, since 3D rendering programs offer many different user parameters, there's a significant learning curve to use these programs effectively.

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1.9K Views.  University of Minnesota. We have developed a light-sheet microscope which can digitize the whole cochlea. This microscope has air-mounted objectives with a long working distance that can image small mouse cochleas up to a large human temporal bone. It serially sections the cochlea with a laser beam without causing any mechanical destruction.Our imaging method can be used to assess pathological changes in the cochlea, such as the loss of hair cells and spiral ganglion neurons due to aging. After euthanizing and...