الكتاب ليس لديهم الاعترافات.

<ol><li>Cleaning and separation in conduits. UK patent. , GB2358229, WO0151224 (2001).</li>
<li>Quarini, J. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222726601_Ice-pigging_to_reduce_and_remove_fouling_and_to_achieve_clean-in-place">Ice-pigging to reduce and remove fouling and to achieve clean-in-place.</a> Appl. Therm. Eng. 22, 747-753 (2002).</li>
<li>Evans, T. S., Quarini, G. L., Shire, G. S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140700707001132">Investigation into the transportation and melting of thick ice slurries in pipes.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 31, 145-151 (2008).</li>
<li>Shire, G. S. F., Quarini, G. L., Rhys, T. D. L., Evans, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257128398_The_anomalous_pressure_drop_behaviour_of_ice_slurries_flowing_through_constrictions">The anomalous pressure drop behaviour of ice slurries flowing through constrictions.</a> Int. J. Multiph. Flow. 34, 510-515 (2008).</li>
<li>Shire, G. S. F., Quarini, G. L., Evans, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://fulltext.study/preview/pdf/648711.pdf">Pressure drop of flowing ice slurries in industrial heat exchangers.</a> Appl. Therm. Eng. 29, 1500-1506 (2009).</li>
<li>Evans, T. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Technical+Aspects+of+Pipeline+Pigging+with+Flowing+Ice+Slurries+%5B%5D%22">Technical Aspects of Pipeline Pigging with Flowing Ice Slurries [dissertation]</a>. , Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol. (2007).</li>
<li>Shire, G. S. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22The+behaviour+of+ice+pigging+slurries+%5B%5D%22">The behaviour of ice pigging slurries [dissertation]</a>. , Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol. (2006).</li>
<li>Hales, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263737485_Ice_Fraction_Measurement_of_Ice_Slurries_through_Electromagnetic_Attenuation">Ice fraction measurement of ice slurries through electromagnetic attenuation.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 47, 98-104 (2014).</li>
<li>Hales, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269724728_The_Effect_of_Salinity_and_Temperature_on_Electromagnetic_Wave_Attenuation_in_Brine">The effect of salinity and temperature on electromagnetic wave attenuation in brine.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 51, 161-168 (2015).</li>
<li>Hales, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Ice+slurry+diagnostics+through+electromagnetic+wave+attenuation+and+other+techniques+%5B%5D%22">Ice slurry diagnostics through electromagnetic wave attenuation and other techniques [dissertation]</a>. , Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol. (2015).</li>
<li>Lucas, E. J. K., Hales, A., McBryde, D., Yun, X., Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283951498_Noninvasive_Ultrasonic_Monitoring_of_Ice_Pigging_in_Pipes_Containing_Liquid_Food_Materials">Noninvasive Ultrasonic Monitoring of Ice Pigging in Pipes Containing Liquid Food Materials.</a> J. Food Process. Eng. 40, e12306(2015).</li>
<li>Carrasco, J., Hodgson, A., Michaelides, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+molecular+perspective+of+water+at+metal+interfaces%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nat.+Mater%22%5BJournal%5D)">A molecular perspective of water at metal interfaces.</a> Nat. Mater. 11, 667-674 (2012).</li>
<li>Hu, X. L., Michaelides, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Ice+formation+on+kaolinite%3A+Lattice+match+or+amphoterism%3F+%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Surf.+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Ice formation on kaolinite: Lattice match or amphoterism? </a> Surf. Sci. 601, 5378-5381 (2007).</li>
<li>Hu, X. L., Michaelides, A. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244168678_The_kaolinite_0_0_1_polar_basal_plane">The kaolinite (0 0 1) polar basal plane.</a> Surf. Sci. 604, 111-117 (2010).</li>
<li>Leiper, A. N., Ash, D. G., McBryde, D. J., Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256967634_Improving_the_thermal_efficiency_of_ice_slurry_production_through_comminution">Improving the thermal efficiency of ice slurry production through comminution.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 35, 1931-1939 (2012).</li>
<li>Leiper, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=%22Carnot+cycle+optimisation+of+ice+slurry+production+through+comminution+of+bulk+ice+%5B%5D%22">Carnot cycle optimisation of ice slurry production through comminution of bulk ice [dissertation]</a>. , Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol. (2012).</li>
<li>Leiper, A. N., Hammond, E. C., Ash, D. G., McBryde, D. J., Quarini, G. L. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271559602_Energy_conservation_in_ice_slurry_applications">Energy conservation in ice slurry applications.</a> Appl. Therm. Eng. 51, 1255-1262 (2013).</li>
<li>Bédécarrats, J. -P., David, T., Castaing-Lasvignottes, J. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245053319_Ice_slurry_production_using_supercooling_phenomenon">Ice slurry production using supercooling phenomenon.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 33, 196-204 (2010).</li>
<li>Wijeysundera, N. E., Hawlader, M. N. A., Andy, C. W. B., Hossain, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229303526_Ice-slurry_production_using_direct_contact_heat_transfer">Ice-slurry production using direct contact heat transfer.</a> Int. J. Refrig. 27, 511-519 (2004).</li>
<li>Reynolds, O. On the extent and action of the heating surface of steam boilers. Proc. Lit. Philos. Soc. Manch. 14, 7-12 (1874).</li>
<li>Reynolds, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aReynolds%2C+O+%22Papers+on+mechanical+and+physical+subjects%3A+reprinted+from+various+transactions+and+journals%22">Papers on mechanical and physical subjects: reprinted from various transactions and journals</a>. , Cambridge University Press. Vol. I, 1869-1882, Ch. 14. On the extent and action of the heating surface of steam boilers 81-85 (1900).</li>
<li>Reynolds, O. Papers on mechanical and physical subjects. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 12, 129-136 (1969).</li>
<li>Prandtl, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-11836-8_44">Eine Beziehung zwischen Wärmeaustausch und Strömungswiderstand der Flüssigkeiten (On the relation between heat exchange and stream resistance of fluid flow).</a> Physik. Z. 11, 1072-1078 (1910).</li>
<li>Prandtl, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-11836-8_130">Bemerkung über den Wärmeübergang im Rohr (Note on heat transmission in pipes).</a> Physik. Z. 29, 487-489 (1928).</li>
<li>Taylor, G. I. Conditions at the surface of a hot body exposed to the wind. Rep. Memo. ACA. 272, (1916).</li>
<li>Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/95514?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">The Application of Osborne Reynolds' Theory of Heat Transfer to Flow through a Pipe.</a> Proc. R. Soc. A. 129, 25-30 (1930).</li>
<li>Kármán, T. v <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aK%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n%2C+Tv+%22Proceedings+of+the+Fourth+International+Congress+for+Applied+Mechanics%22">Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress for Applied Mechanics</a>. , Cambridge, UK. 54-91 (1934).</li>
<li>Kármán, T. v The analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 61, 705-710 (1939).</li>
<li>Martinelli, R. C. Heat transfer to molten metals. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. 69, 947-959 (1947).</li>
<li>Colburn, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.worldcat.org/title/method-of-correlating-forced-convection-heat-transfer-data-and-a-comparison-with-fluid-friction/oclc/35848717">A method of correlating forced convection heat-transfer data and a comparison with fluid friction.</a> Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. 29, 174-210 (1933).</li>
<li>Colburn, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0017931064901255">A method of correlating forced convection heat-transfer data and a comparison with fluid friction.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 7, 1359-1384 (1964).</li>
<li>Chilton, T. H., Colburn, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50299a012">Mass Transfer (Absorption) Coefficients Prediction from Data on Heat Transfer and Fluid Friction.</a> Ind. Eng. Chem. 26, 1183-1187 (1934).</li>
<li>Friend, W. L., Metzner, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229776452_Turbulent_heat_transfer_inside_tubes_and_the_analogy_among_heat_mass_and_momentum_transfer">Turbulent heat transfer inside tubes and the analogy among heat, mass, and momentum transfer.</a> AIChE J. 4, 393-402 (1958).</li>
<li>Bejan, A. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223601884_Constructal-theory_Network_of_Conducting_Paths_for_Cooling_a_Heat_Generating_Volume">Constructal-theory network of conducting paths for cooling a heat generating volume.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 40, 799-816 (1997).</li>
<li>Bejan, A., Lorente, S. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234911209_Constructal_theory_of_generation_of_configuration_in_nature_and_engineering">Constructal theory of generation of configuration in nature and engineering.</a> J. Appl. Phys. 100, 041301(2006).</li>
<li>Bejan, A., Lorente, S., Yilbas, B. S., Sahin, A. Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.academia.edu/15487976/Why_solidification_has_an_S-shaped_history">Why solidification has an S-shaped history.</a> Sci. Rep. 3, 1711(2013).</li>
<li>Lake, R. A., Lewis, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/JC075i003p00583/abstract">Salt rejection by sea ice during growth.</a> J. Geophys. Res. 75, 583-597 (1970).</li>
<li>Wettlaufer, J. S., Worster, M. G., Huppert, H. E. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231890446_Natural_convection_during_solidification_of_an_alloy_from_above_with_application_to_the_evolution_of_sea_ice">Natural convection during solidification of an alloy from above with application to the evolution of sea ice.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 344, 291-316 (1997).</li>
<li>Paige, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Stalactite+Growth+beneath+Sea+Ice%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Science%22%5BJournal%5D)">Stalactite Growth beneath Sea Ice.</a> Science. 167, 171-172 (1970).</li>
<li>Dayton, P. K., Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240484312_Observations_of_Ice_Stalactites_in_McMurdo_Sound_Antarctica">Observations of ice stalactites in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.</a> J. Geophys. Res. 76, 1595-1599 (1971).</li>
<li>Eide, L. I., Martin, S. The formation of brine drainage features in young sea ice. J. Glaciol. 14, 137-154 (1975).</li>
<li>Martin, S. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231803789_Ice_stalactites_Comparison_of_a_laminar_flow_theory_with_experiment">Ice stalactites: comparison of a laminar flow theory with experiment.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 63, 51-79 (1974).</li>
<li>Jeffs, K., Attenborough, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aJeffs%2C+K+%22Frozen+Planet%3A+Episode+5+%27Winter%27%22">Frozen Planet: Episode 5 'Winter'</a>. , BBC. (2011).</li>
<li>Fothergill, A., Berlowitz, V., Attenborough, D. Ch. Winter: Life closes down. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aFothergill%2C+A+%22in+Frozen+Planet%3A+A+World+Beyond+Imagination%22">in Frozen Planet: A World Beyond Imagination</a>. , BBC books. (2011).</li>
<li>Yun, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287800102_Ice_formation_in_the_subcooled_brine_environment">Ice formation in the subcooled brine environment.</a> Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 95, 198-205 (2016).</li>
<li>Weast, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&safe=off&q=author%3aWeast%2C+RC+%22CRC+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics%22">CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics</a>. 64, 64 edn, CRC Press. 257-258 (1983).</li>
<li>Bejan, A., Lage, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236541062_The_Prandtl_Number_Effect_on_the_Transition_in_Natural_Convection_Along_a_Vertical_Surface">The Prandtl Number Effect on the Transition in Natural Convection Along a Vertical Surface.</a> J. Heat Transfer. 112, 787-790 (1990).</li>
</ol>

الكتاب ليس لديهم ما يكشف.

عملية توليد الجليد باستخدام محلول ملحي كمبرد الثانوية ينطوي على مزيج من الحرارة ونقل الجماعي. إذا كان نقل الحرارة أكبر، ثم أشكال الجليد قبل أن الماء لديه فرصة لخلط مع السوائل السائبة. ولوحظ أنه عندما يكون هناك حركة نسبية بين الماء قدم ومحلول ملحي بالجملة هادئة (أي</...

<html> وتستخدم عجائن الجليد على نطاق واسع في الصناعة، واحد التطبيق الناجح بشكل خاص هو-ولادة الخنازير تكنولوجيا الثلج 1 و 2. بالمقارنة مع رغوة التقليدية وخنزير الصلبة، يمكن للخنزير الجليد السفر من خلال طبولوجيا معقدة على مسافة طويلة بسبب تأثير تزييت الطور السائل وارتفاع درجة التجمد لها وبعض من الجليد بلورات تذوب 3، 4، 5 . حتى لو كان يحصل عالقا الخنزير، يمكن للمرء ببساطة الانتظار للعجائن الجليد في الذوبان واستئناف عملية التنظيف في وقت لاحق. هذه الطريقة في التنظيف الأنابيب هي رخيصة وسهلة الاستخدام. جزء الجليد يلعب دورا رئيسيا في أداء الخنزير الجليد. لقياس نسبة الجليد، يمكن للمرء استخدام كافيتيري (الصحافة الفرنسية) لتحديد ما إذا كان الطين الجليد سميكا بما يكفي 6،&quot;&gt; 7. هناك جزء الجليد عالية كافيتيري، عادة 80٪، مطلوب عند إجراء ولادة الخنازير الجليد. وأظهرت البحوث التي أجريت مؤخرا على الإنترنت كشف جزء الجليد أن كلا من الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية والموجات فوق الصوتية هي مناسبة لهذا المنصب 8، 9، 10، 11. عادة ما تكون مصنوعة الخنزير الجليد صانع الجليد كشط سطح من حل كلوريد الصوديوم 5٪ بالوزن (الماء المالح). بل هو أيضا وسيلة أساسية لجعل عجائن الجليد في الصناعة. هذا النوع من صنع الثلج يتجمد الماء أو محلول ملحي على سطح معدني بارد، عادة ما يكون سطح أملس 316 الفولاذ المقاوم للثم ماكينة القص دوريا جزيئات الجليد قبالة. واجهات السائل إلى المعدن معقدة جدا وتتأثر مجموعة واسعة من العوامل التي لا بد منها لصنع الثلج 12. واجهة بين غير المعدنية والماء يمكن أن تكون مختلفة جدا، ومثال واحد خاصة للاهتمام هو الكولنيت. وKaolواجهة المياه inite هو خاص بسبب عدم وجود بنية الجليد مواتية المجاور لسطح صلب، ولكن بدلا طبقة من السائل الركيزة مذبذب أن تشجع مجموعات المستعبدين الهيدروجين مثل الجليد لتشكيل فوقه 13 و 14. وهناك طريقة أخرى لإنتاج الخنزير الجليد يتطلب تكسير كتل الجليد ولم يضف بينما يتم إضافة عالية التركيز محلول ملحي في وقت واحد. لهذا الأسلوب، يمكن للنظام التبريد تشغيل عند درجة حرارة التبخر أعلى من ذلك بكثير بسبب عدم إضافة أية اكتئاب نقطة التجمد (حماية الأسرة) قبل تشكيل الجليد. وبالتالي يعتبر أكثر كفاءة نظرا لنسبة ضغط خفضت والسلطة تراجعت عن واجب إعطاء تبريد 15، 16، 17. هناك طريقتان إنتاج الآيس الأخرى: إنتاج الثلج من المياه فائق التبريد ووضع التبريد والمياه في اتصال مباشر <supالطبقة = &quot;XREF&quot;&gt; 18 و 19. الأسلوب ينطوي على البرودة الفائقة تعكير المياه فائق التبريد متبدل الاستقرار لتوليد التنوي الجليد والنمو. المشكلة الأكبر لهذا الأسلوب هو تشكيل الجليد غير المرغوب فيها التي يمكن منع النظام. يعتبر وسيلة اتصال مباشر وليس مناسبة للولادة الخنازير الجليد لأنه لا التبريد ولا زيت التشحيم مطلوبون في المنتج الجليد النهائي. تشكيل الجليد يتطلب الحرارة ونقل الجماعي بسبب الحرارة الكامنة للانصهار ولدت في هذه العملية. اكتشفت لأول مرة من قبل أوسبورن رينولدز في عام 1874 أن نقل الحرارة والكتلة في الغازات تقترن بقوة ويمكن التعبير عنها في صيغ رياضية مماثلة 20. شكل هذا العمل ورقة رائدة في موضوع الزخم والحرارة ونقل الجماعي في السوائل وطبع عدة مرات 21 و 22. هذا الموضوع ثم درست من قبلعدد من الآخرين، من كلا النهجين التحليلية والتجريبية، للغازات والسوائل، والمعدن المنصهر 23، 24، 25، 26، 27، 28، 29، 30، 31، 32، 33. وبصرف النظر عن انتقال الحرارة والكتلة، يحتاج السائل مواقع التنوي حيث يمكن للنمو الجليد شجيري تتطور. ونظرة حديثة إلى نمو بلورات الثلج يستخدم القانون Constructal، التي وضعتها أدريان بيجان، ليشرح لماذا ينمو الجليد في هذا الطريق 34، 35، 36. تشكيل الجليد في الماء المالح مختلفة جدا عن تلك في الماء النقي بسبب وجود الملح. أولا،<html> الملح يغير الديناميكا الحرارية من السوائل ويقلل درجة التجمد لها. ثانيا، الملح لا يمكن أن تذوب في مصفوفة الجليد (باستثناء هيدروهاليت، التي يمكن أن تشكل فقط عندما تصل درجة الحرارة إلى نقطة سهل الانصهار)، ورفض أن السائل بكميات كبيرة عندما يبدأ الجليد في النمو. تم اكتشاف الرفض من الملح في كل من الجليد البحري والجليد درس في المختبر 37 و 38. منذ رفض محلول ملحي عالي التركيز هو على درجة حرارة أقل بكثير من درجة التجمد لمياه البحر، حيث ينزل، وينمو الجليد في التفاعل بين المياه المالحة المتدفقة والسوائل بكميات كبيرة هادئة. وقد اكتشفت هذه الهوابط الجليد، واسمه أيضا brinicles، لأول مرة في ماكموردو الصوت، والقطب الجنوبي وكان درس التجربة 39، 40، 41، 42. في عام 2011، بي بي سي بتصوير تشكيل brinicles في سلسلة المجمدة كوكب لها&quot;XREF&quot;&gt; 43 و 44. في المختبر، واكتشف أن طريق عكس السوائل المتدفقة وهادئة عند تقديم الماء للحمام من محلول ملحي بارد، والماء قد تتحول إلى جليد وفقا للشروط الصحيحة 45. وقد تبين أن الموقع حيث يتم إدخال الماء، وتدفق الريولوجيا، ودرجة حرارة المياه المالحة والتركيز كلها عوامل رئيسية تؤثر في الكيفية التي يمكن أن تنتج الكثير من الجليد. ويتمثل الهدف العام من هذه الدراسة هو التحقيق في ما إذا كان يمكن تطوير صانع الجليد من خلال هذه الآلية لتوليد عجائن الجليد، بالنظر إلى أن درجة حرارة المبخر مرتفعة وارتفاع معدل نقل الحرارة السائل إلى سائل يمكن أن تعزز كفاءة استخدام الطاقة. هذه المادة سهم الجوانب الرئيسية من التجربة.

<table><tbody><tr><td>DMA 4500 M</td><td>Anton Paar</td><td>81546022</td><td>Density Metre</td></tr><tr><td>GELATO Chef 2200</td><td>magimix</td><td>0036500504R13</td><td>Ice Cream Maker</td></tr><tr><td>280D</td><td>FREEZE MASTER</td><td>241-1441</td><td>Pipe Freezer</td></tr><tr><td>M17.5X2</td><td>BLUE ICE MACHINES</td><td>GK924</td><td>Slushy Puppy Machine</td></tr><tr><td>HH68K</td><td>OMEGA</td><td>140045</td><td>Thermometer</td></tr><tr><td>OHAUS</td><td>TS4KW</td><td>1324</td><td>Scale</td></tr><tr><td>ZFC321WA/BNI225</td><td>ZANUSSI</td><td>920672574-00</td><td>Freezer</td></tr><tr><td>EIS Heater Matrix</td><td>Vauxhall</td><td>214720041</td><td>Heat Exchanger</td></tr><tr><td>2500LPH</td><td>JBA</td><td>AP-2500</td><td>Pump</td></tr><tr><td>Glass syringe</td><td>FORTUNA Optima</td><td></td><td>100 mL</td></tr><tr><td>OAT concentrated coolant</td><td>wilko</td><td>P30409014</td><td>Ethylene Glycol</td></tr><tr><td>pure dried vacuum salt</td><td>INEOS Enterprise</td><td>1433324</td><td>NaCl Salt</td></tr><tr><td>Methylated Spirits</td><td>Barrettine</td><td>1170</td><td>Methanol&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

ice generation and the heat and mass transfer phenomena of introducing water to a cold bath of brine

ونحن لشرح طريقة لدراسة الحرارة والكتلة نقل والظواهر تجميد في بيئة المياه المالحة subcooled. وأظهرت تجربتنا أنه في ظل الظروف المناسبة، والجليد يمكن أن تنتج عندما يتم إدخال الماء إلى حمام من محلول ملحي بارد. لجعل شكل جليد، بالإضافة إلى وجود مزيج الماء المالح والماء، فإن معدل نقل الحرارة يجب تجاوز ذلك من نقل الجماعي. عندما يتم إدخال الماء في شكل قطرات صغيرة على سطح الماء المالح، وطريقة نقل الحرارة والشامل عن طريق الانتشار. توقف الطفو المياه من الاختلاط مع الماء المالح تحت، ولكن كما الجليد ينمو أكثر سمكا، ويبطئ معدل انتقال الحرارة، مما يجعل الجليد من الصعب أن ينمو نتيجة لذلك. عندما يتم إدخال الماء داخل محلول ملحي في شكل تدفق، تم العثور على عدد من العوامل التي تؤثر على مقدار الجليد يمكن أن تشكل. درجة حرارة الماء المالح وتركيز، والتي هي القوة الدافعة والحرارة ونقل الجماعي، على التوالي، يمكن أن تؤثر على تحويل راتي الماء إلى جليدس؛ انخفاض درجات الحرارة حمام وتركيز المحلول الملحي تشجع المزيد من الجليد لتشكيل. والريولوجيا التدفق، والتي يمكن أن تؤثر بشكل مباشر على كل من الحرارة ومعاملات نقل الجماعي، هو أيضا عامل رئيسي. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، الريولوجيا تدفق يتغير مجال الاتصال من تدفق مع السوائل السائبة.

الشكل 1 يقارن آثار المياه أدخلت على سطح الماء المالح إلى الماء المحقون من خلال محلول ملحي. في السيناريو &quot;الايس كاب&quot;، والجليد المتكون هو صلب لأن الماء لا يختلط كثيرا مع السوائل السائبة. الفرق في درجة الحرارة والكثافة بين السوائل اثنين ي?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine at JoVE.com

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

هنا، نقدم بروتوكول للتدليل على جيل من الجليد عند تقديم الماء لحمام بارد من محلول ملحي، وكمبرد الثانوية، في مجموعة من درجات الحرارة أقل بكثير من نقطة تجمد الماء. ويمكن استخدامه كطريقة بديلة لإنتاج الجليد للصناعة.

الجيل الجليد وانتقال الحرارة والكتلة الظواهر من إدخال المياه إلى حمام الباردة من الماء المالح

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed ...

ice-generation-heat-mass-transfer-phenomena-introducing-water-to-cold

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Physics

Engineering

Unit 1

Temperature and Heat

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

13.8K Views.  University of Bristol.  هنا، نقدم بروتوكول للتدليل على جيل من الجليد عند تقديم الماء لحمام بارد من محلول ملحي، وكمبرد الثانوية، في مجموعة من درجات الحرارة أقل بكثير من نقطة تجمد الماء. ويمكن استخدامه كطريقة بديلة لإنتاج الجليد للصناعة. 

Video: Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

Reservoir Condition Pore-scale Imaging of Multiple Fluid Phases Using X-ray Microtomography

X-ray microtomography was used to image, at a resolution of 6.6 &#181;m, the pore-scale arrangement of residual carbon dioxide ganglia in the pore-space of a carbonate rock at pressures and temperatures representative of typical formations used for CO2 storage. Chemical equilibrium between the CO2, brine and rock phases was maintained using a high pressure high temperature reactor, replicating conditions far away from the injection site. Fluid flow was controlled using high pressure high temperature syringe pumps. To maintain representative in-situ conditions within the micro-CT scanner a carbon fiber high pressure micro-CT coreholder was used. Diffusive CO2 exchange across the confining sleeve from the pore-space of the rock to the confining fluid was prevented by surrounding the core with a triple wrap of aluminum foil. Reconstructed brine contrast was modeled using a polychromatic x-ray source, and brine composition was chosen to maximize the three phase contrast between the two fluids and the rock. Flexible flow lines were used to reduce forces on the sample during image acquisition, potentially causing unwanted sample motion, a major shortcoming in previous techniques. An internal thermocouple, placed directly adjacent to the rock core, coupled with an external flexible heating wrap and a PID controller was used to maintain a constant temperature within the flow cell. Substantial amounts of CO2 were trapped, with a residual saturation of 0.203 &#177; 0.013, and the sizes of larger volume ganglia obey power law distributions, consistent with percolation theory.

We present a methodology for the imaging of multiple fluid phases at reservoir conditions by the use of x-ray microtomography. We show some representative results of capillary trapping in a carbonate rock sample.

التصوير خزان الحالة المسام النطاق من مراحل متعددة باستخدام السوائل مجهري الأشعة السينية

X-ray microtomography was used to image, at a resolution of 6.6 &#181;m, the pore-scale arrangement of residual carbon dioxide ganglia in the pore-space ...

Experimental System of Solar Adsorption Refrigeration with Concentrated Collector

To improve the performance of solar adsorption refrigeration, an experimental system with a solar concentration collector was set up and investigated. The main components of the system were the adsorbent bed, the condenser, the evaporator, the cooling sub-system, and the solar collector. In the first step of the experiment, the vapor-saturated bed was heated by the solar radiation under closed conditions, which caused the bed temperature and pressure to increase. When the bed pressure became high enough, the bed was switched to connect to the condenser, thus water vapor flowed continually from the bed to the condenser to be liquefied. Next, the bed needed to cool down after the desorption. In the solar-shielded condition, achieved by aluminum foil, the circulating water loop was opened to the bed. With the water continually circulating in the bed, the stored heat in the bed was took out and the bed pressure decreased accordingly. When the bed pressure dropped below the saturation pressure at the evaporation temperature, the valve to the evaporator was opened. A mass of water vapor rushed into the bed and was adsorbed by the zeolite material. With the massive vaporization of the water in the evaporator, the refrigeration effect was generated finally. The experimental result has revealed that both the COP (coefficient of the performance of the system) and the SCP (specific cooling power of the system) of the SAPO-34 zeolite was greater than that of the ZSM-5 zeolite, no matter whether the adsorption time was longer or shorter. The system of the SAPO-34 zeolite generated a maximum COP of 0.169.

With solar energy as the driving force, a novel adsorption refrigeration system has been developed and experimentally investigated. Water vapor and zeolite formed the working pair of the adsorption system. This manuscript describes the setup of the experimental rig, the operation procedure, and the important results.

نظام تجريبي للتبريد الشمسي الامتزاز بجامع مركزة

To improve the performance of solar adsorption refrigeration, an experimental system with a solar concentration collector was set up and investigated. The ...

Environment

Evolution of Staircase Structures in Diffusive Convection

Diffusive convection (DC) occurs when the vertical stratified density is controlled by two opposing scalar gradients that have distinctly different molecular diffusivities, and the larger- and smaller- diffusivity scalar gradients have negative and positive contributions for the density distribution, respectively. The DC occurs in many natural processes and engineering applications, for example, oceanography, astrophysics and metallurgy. In oceans, one of the most remarkable features of DC is that the vertical temperature and salinity profiles are staircase-like structure, composed of consecutive steps with thick homogeneous convecting layers and relatively thin and high-gradient interfaces. The DC staircases have been observed in many oceans, especially in the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, and play an important role on the ocean circulation and climatic change. In the Arctic Ocean, there exist basin-wide and persistent DC staircases in the upper and deep oceans. The DC process has an important effect on diapycnal mixing in the upper ocean and may significantly influence the surface ice-melting. Compared to the limitations of field observations, laboratory experiment shows its unique advantage to effectively examine the dynamic and thermodynamic processes in DC, because the boundary conditions and the controlled parameters can be strictly adjusted. Here, a detailed protocol is described to simulate the evolution process of DC staircase structure, including its generation, development and disappearance, in a rectangular tank filled with stratified saline water. The experimental setup, evolution process, data analysis, and discussion of results are described in detail.

Diffusive convection (DC) widely occurs in natural processes and engineering applications, characterized by a series of staircases with homogeneous convecting layers and stratified interfaces. An experimental procedure is described to simulate the evolution process of the DC staircase structure, including the generation, development and disappearance, in a rectangular tank.

تطور الهياكل الدرج في الحمل الحراري انتشارية

Diffusive convection (DC) occurs when the vertical stratified density is controlled by two opposing scalar gradients that have distinctly different ...

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern. Hybrid wettable patterns were produced by coating superhydrophilic SiO2 on a masked, hydrophobic, cylindrical copper surface. Using de-ionized (DI) water as the working fluid, pool-boiling heat-transfer studies were conducted on the different surface-treated copper cylinders of a 25-mm diameter and a 40-mm length. The experimental results showed that the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern influenced the wall superheat and the HTC. By increasing the number of interlines, the HTC was enhanced when compared to the plain surface. Images obtained from the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera indicated that more bubbles formed on the interlines as compared to other parts. The hybrid wettable pattern with the lowermost section being hydrophobic gave the best heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The experimental results indicated that the bubble dynamics of the surface is an important factor that determines the nucleate boiling.

Pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were carried out to observe the effects of hybrid wettable patterns on the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The parameters of investigation are the number of interlines and the pattern orientation of the modified wettable surface.

تعزيز بركة الغليان نقل الحرارة على أسطواني السطوح مع أنماط قابل للبلل الهجين

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the ...

Measuring Electrical Conductivity to Study the Formation of Brines Under Martian Conditions

This paper describes a protocol to design experiments to study the formation of brines under Martian conditions and monitor the process with electrical conductivity measurements. We used the Engineering Qualification Model (EQM) of Habitability: Brines, Irradiation, and Temperature (HABIT)/ExoMars 2022 instrument for the experiment setup but we provide a brief account of constructing a simple and inexpensive electrical conductivity measurement setup. The protocol serves to calibrate the electrical conductivity measurements of the salt deliquescence into brine in a simulated Martian environment. The Martian conditions of temperature (-70 &#176;C to 20 &#176;C), relative humidity (0% to 100%) and pressure (7 - 8 mbar) with carbon-dioxide atmosphere were simulated in the SpaceQ Mars simulation chamber, a facility at the Lule&#229; University of Technology, Sweden. The hydrate form of the known amount of salt accommodated between a pair of electrodes and thus the electrical conductivity measured depends predominantly on its water content and the temperature and relative humidity of the system. Electrical conductivity measurements were carried out at 1 Hz while exposing salts to a continuously increasing relative humidity (to force transitioning through various hydrates) at different Martian temperatures. For demonstration, a day-night cycle at Oxia Planum, Mars (the landing site of ExoMars 2022 mission) was recreated.

<meta charset="utf8"></head><body>قياس التوصيل الكهربائي لدراسة تكوين المحاليل في ظل ظروف المريخ

The objective of the protocol is to monitor the hydration of salts and the brine formation process. Electrical conductivity is used as the measurement technique. The experiments are performed in a simulated Martian environment of temperature, relative humidity and carbon-dioxide atmosphere.

قياس التوصيل الكهربائي لدراسة تكوين المحاليل في ظل ظروف المريخ

This paper describes a protocol to design experiments to study the formation of brines under Martian conditions and monitor the process with electrical ...

Chemistry

Experimental Multiscale Methodology for Predicting Material Fouling Resistance

The buildup of fouling deposits in energy systems degrades their ability to transfer heat, reducing efficiency and causing operational issues such as localized corrosion. Each application presents its own challenges. In nuclear power generation, the buildup of CRUD (Chalk River Unidentified Deposits) induces unique, negative effects ranging from reduced heat transfer, to axial power shifting, to CRUD-induced localized corrosion (CILC), the last of which can cause sudden fuel failure. Knowledge of why CRUD forms and how to prevent its adhesion to nuclear fuel rods represents a major step towards eliminating it. This paper demonstrates a methodology to ascertain which materials may resist CRUD adhesion, thereby preventing its initiation and growth. It presents experiments targeted at multiple length scales: pool boiling (macroscale), which simulates CRUD initiation processes in a nuclear reactor, and atomic force microscope (AFM) force spectroscopy (microscale), which yields quantitative measurements of the adhesion between CRUD constituents and candidate CRUD-resistant materials. Early data from both sets of experiments show some correlation, suggesting that AFM force spectroscopy (AFM-FS) may be used to pre-screen materials for fouling resistance. So far, it appears that CRUD constituents adhere well to oxides, while carbides show both greatly reduced adhesion and no adherent CRUD in pool boiling experiments. The relationship between the AFM-FS measurements and the growth of CRUD in the pool boiling experiments may provide insight into the possible factors affecting fouling in nuclear reactors, eventually leading to its elimination.

Fouling, or corrosion product deposition, plagues numerous fields of energy production. At its core is adhesion between dissimilar materials. Understanding and controlling adhesion could reduce or eliminate fouling. This paper demonstrates pool boiling experiments (macroscale) and atomic force microscope force-spectroscopy measurements (microscale), which when in agreement, indicate fouling-resistance.

The buildup of fouling deposits in energy systems degrades their ability to transfer heat, reducing efficiency and causing operational issues such as ...

Biology

Conducting Reactions Below Room Temperature

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Dana Lashley - College of William and Mary
Demonstration by: Matt Smith
When new bonds are formed in the course of a chemical reaction, it requires that the involved species (atoms or molecules) come in very close proximity and collide into one another. The collisions between these species are more frequent and effective the higher the speed at which these molecules are moving. A widely used rule of thumb, which has its roots in the Arrhenius equation1, states that raising the temperature by 10 K will approximately double the rate of a reaction, and raising the temperature by 20 K will quadruple the rate:
(1) <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10224/10224eq1.jpg" />
Equation (1) is often found in its logarithmic form:
(2) <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/10224/10224eq2.jpg" />
where k is the rate of the chemical reaction, A is the frequency factor (relating to frequency of molecular collisions), Ea is the activation energy required for the reaction, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the temperature at which the reaction is taking place.
A higher temperature therefore means a reaction is completed much faster. Nonetheless, in some cases it is desirable to carry out reactions at low temperatures, in spite of the lowering effect on the rate of the reaction. A few scenarios in this regard are elaborated upon further below.
When it is useful to run a reaction below room temperature, chemists use cooling baths to maintain a certain temperature or temperature range. Reactions are cooled down to a desired temperature by placing the reaction flask inside an appropriate cooling bath. The reagents in the reaction never come in direct contact with the chemicals in the cooling bath. The cooling bath may consist of a single cryogenic (cooling) component (such as ice, dry ice, or liquid nitrogen) or may be a mixture of the cryogenic component with a certain solvent and/or an additive salt. The purpose of the solvent is to effectively transfer temperature of the cooling agent to the reaction flask, and the purpose of the additive is to lower (or depress) the freezing point of the mixture. (Note that it is possible for a substance to be both a solvent and an additive.)

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Dana Lashley - College of William and Mary
Demonstration by: Matt Smith
When new bonds are formed in the course of a chemical ...

JoVE Science Education

Organic Chemistry

Working with Hot and Cold Sources

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Working with extreme temperatures, both high and low, is an integral part of many laboratory operations. For many, mentioning a laboratory instantly evokes the mental picture of a Bunsen burner. Bunsen burners and hot plates are used extensively in small and large operations in research laboratories and industries, thus making it necessary for all users to be aware of their safe handling procedures. Hot plates and Bunsen burners are high temperature heat sources, while low temperatures are obtained using dry ice and cryogenic liquids, such as liquid nitrogen. Both dry ice and liquid nitrogen can pose significant hazards to the user if not handled carefully.

Working with Extreme Temperatures: Hot and Cold Sources

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Working with extreme temperatures, both high and low, ...

Basic Biology

Lab Safety

Degassing Liquids with Freeze-Pump-Thaw Cycling

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neil Branda &#8212;&#160;Simon Fraser University
Degassing refers to the process by which dissolved gases are removed from a liquid. The presence of dissolved gases such as oxygen or carbon dioxide can impede chemical reactions that utilize sensitive reagents, interfere with spectroscopic measurements, or can induce unwanted bubble formation.

A number of different techniques are available for degassing liquids; some of these include heating, ultrasonic agitation, chemical removal of gases, substitution with inert gas by bubbling and freeze-pump-thaw cycling. Freeze-pump-thaw cycling is a common and effective method for small scale degassing, and will be demonstrated here in more detail.

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neil Branda &#8212;&#160;Simon Fraser University
Degassing refers to the process by which dissolved gases are removed from a ...

الجيل الجليد وانتقال الحرارة والكتلة الظواهر من إدخال المياه إلى حمام الباردة من الماء المالح

Summary

Explore More Videos

التصوير خزان الحالة المسام النطاق من مراحل متعددة باستخدام السوائل مجهري الأشعة السينية

نظام تجريبي للتبريد الشمسي الامتزاز بجامع مركزة

تطور الهياكل الدرج في الحمل الحراري انتشارية

تعزيز بركة الغليان نقل الحرارة على أسطواني السطوح مع أنماط قابل للبلل الهجين

قياس التوصيل الكهربائي لدراسة تكوين المحاليل في ظل ظروف المريخ

قياس التوصيل الكهربائي لدراسة تكوين المحاليل في ظل ظروف المريخ

Experimental Multiscale Methodology for Predicting Material Fouling Resistance

Conducting Reactions Below Room Temperature

Working with Hot and Cold Sources

Degassing Liquids with Freeze-Pump-Thaw Cycling