The authors would like to thank Prof. Paul Hooykaas for kindly providing the pCAMBIA1302 vector and Agrobacterium tumefaciens AGL1 from the Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, the Netherlands. The authors would also like to thank Eva Colic for her help in growing the fluorescent transformants. This work was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Mitacs Accelerate program.

All media and solutions must be autoclaved prior to use unless otherwise stated. All centrifuge tubes, pipette tips, etc., should be sterile or autoclaved before use. For easy reference, the media recipes used in this protocol are listed in Table 1.
1. Preparation of A. tumefaciens electrocompetent cells
<ol>
	<li>Inoculate Agrobacterium (AGL-1) into a 25 mL sterile shaker flask of LB media (supplemented with rifampicin, 20 mg/L-1</su...

Stable Gene Integration in Chlorella vulgaris Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens

<ol>
	<li>Smith, E. F., Townsend, C. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+plant+tumor+of+bacterial+origin.">A plant tumor of bacterial origin.</a> Science. 25 (643), 671-673 (1907).</li><li>Chilton, M. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stable+incorporation+of+plasmid+DNA+into+higher+plant+cells:+The+molecular+basis+of+tumorigenesis.">Stable incorporation of plasmid DNA into higher plant cells: The molecular basis of tumorigenesis.</a> Cell. 11 (2), 263-271 (1977).</li><li>De Cleene, M., De Ley, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+host+range+of+crown+gall.">The host range of crown gall.</a> The Botanical Review. 42, 389-466 (1976).</li><li>Hooykaas, P. J., Schilperoort, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Agrobacterium+and+plant+genetic+engineering.">Agrobacterium and plant genetic engineering.</a> Plant Molecular Biology. 19, 15-38 (1992).</li><li>Bundock, P., den Dulk-Ras, A., Beijersbergen, A., Hooykaas, P. J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transkingdom+T-DNA+transfer+from+Agrobacterium+tumefaciens+to+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">Transkingdom T-DNA transfer from Agrobacterium tumefaciens to Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> The European Molecular Biology Organization. 14 (13), 3206-3214 (1995).</li><li>Piers, K. L., Heath, J. D., Liang, X., Stephens, K. M., Nester, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Agrobacteriumtumefaciens-mediated+transformation+of+yeast.">Agrobacteriumtumefaciens-mediated transformation of yeast.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (4), 1613-1618 (1996).</li><li>Kumar, S. V., Misquitta, R. W., Reddy, V. S., Rao, B. J., Rajam, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+transformation+of+the+green+alga-Chlamydomonas+reinhardtii+by+Agrobacteriumtumefaciens.">Genetic transformation of the green alga-Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by Agrobacteriumtumefaciens.</a> Plant Science. 166 (3), 731-738 (2004).</li><li>de Groot, M. J., Bundock, P., Hooykaas, P. J., Beijersbergen, A. 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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chlamydomonas+reinhardtii-expressed+multimer+of+ToAMP4+inhibits+the+growth+of+bacteria+of+both+Gram-positive+and+Gram-negative.">Chlamydomonas reinhardtii-expressed multimer of ToAMP4 inhibits the growth of bacteria of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative.</a> Process Biochemistry. 91, 311-318 (2020).</li><li>Khan, M. I., Shin, J. H., Kim, J. 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A., Rehmann, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+media+optimization+for+mixotrophic+cultivation+of+Chlorella+vulgaris.">Fast media optimization for mixotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris.</a> Scientific Reports. 9, 19262 (2019).</li><li>Morton, E. R., Fuqua, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laboratory+maintenance+of+Agrobacterium.">Laboratory maintenance of Agrobacterium.</a> Current Protocols in Microbiology. , (2012).</li><li>Haddadi, F., Abd Aziz, M., Abdullah, S. N., Tan, S. G., Kamaladini, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+efficient+Agrobacterium-mediated+transformation+of+strawberry+cv.+Camarosa+by+a+dual+plasmid+system.">An efficient Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of strawberry cv. Camarosa by a dual plasmid system.</a> Molecules. 20 (3), 3647-3666 (2015).</li><li>Wang, X., Ryu, D., Houtkooper, R. H., Auwerx, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antibiotic+use+and+abuse:+a+threat+to+mitochondria+and+chloroplasts+with+impact+on+research,+health,+and+environment.">Antibiotic use and abuse: a threat to mitochondria and chloroplasts with impact on research, health, and environment.</a> Bioessays. 37 (10), 1045-1053 (2015).</li><li>Gelvin, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+DNA+repair+and+Agrobacterium+T-DNA+integration.">Plant DNA repair and Agrobacterium T-DNA integration.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 22 (16), 8458 (2021).</li></ol>

The efficiency of transformation is associated with several different parameters. The choice of A. tumefaciens strains used for AMT is crucial. AGL-1 is one of the most invasive strains discovered and, for this reason, has been routinely used in plant AMT. Supplementing the induction media with glucose (15-20 mM) is also important for AMT efficiency. Considering C. vulgaris can grow in both phototrophic and heterotrophic conditions, glucose or other carbon sources are often omitted from microalgae media...

Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram-negative soil-borne bacterium, possesses a unique interkingdom gene transfer ability, earning it the title &#34;natural genetic engineer&#34;1. This bacterium can transfer DNA (T-DNA) from a tumor-inducing plasmid (Ti-Plasmid) into host cells through a Type IV secretion system, resulting in the integration and expression of the T-DNA within the host genome1,2,3,4. In the natural setting, this process leads to tumor formation in plants, commonly known as crown gall disease. However, Agrobacterium can also transfer T-DNA into various other organisms, including yeast, fungi, algae, sea urchin embryos, and even human cells under laboratory conditions5,6,7,8.
Exploiting this natural system, Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (AMT) enables the random integration of gene(s) of interest into a host cell&#39;s nuclear genome by modifying the T-DNA region of the Ti-plasmid. For this purpose, a widely used AMT plant expression vector is pCAMBIA13029. Researchers can employ simple cloning workflows in E. coli before transferring the desired vector into A. tumefaciens for subsequent transfer to the host of interest.
Green microalgae are eukaryotes that share many similarities with land plants but are highly recalcitrant to genetic modification. However, genetic transformation plays a crucial role in both fundamental and biotechnological research of microalgae. In several microalgae species, particularly Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, genetic transformation via AMT has successfully introduced transgenes such as human interleukin-2 (hIL-2), the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 receptor-binding domain (SARS-CoV-2 RBD), and two antimicrobial peptides (AMPs)10,11,12,13. Among these, Chlorella vulgaris, a less fastidious and fast-growing green algae species, holds significant potential for the sustainable production of carbohydrates, proteins, nutraceuticals, pigments, and other high-value compounds14. However, the lack of reliable tools for creating transgenic strains of C. vulgaris hampers its commercial progress. Since there have been only a limited number of published works utilizing AMT in C. vulgaris15, and given the considerable differences between plant and microalgae cultivation, optimizing the AMT protocol becomes essential.
In this study, researchers inserted green fluorescent protein (mGFP5) downstream of the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CamV) 35S promoter and added a histidine tag to use it as a reporter gene for protein expression. Transformants were selected using Hygromycin B, and after subculturing for over twenty generations, the transformation remained stable. The pCAMBIA1302 plasmid employed in this work can be readily adapted to contain any gene of interest. Furthermore, the method and materials presented can be adjusted for other green algae species with an active CamV35S promoter, as this promoter is used for Hygromycin selection.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1 Kb Plus DNA ladder</td>
			<td>FroggaBio</td>
			<td>DM015</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetosyringone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D26665G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</td>
			<td>Gold Biotechnologies</td>
			<td>Strain: AGL-1; Gift from Prof. Paul Hooykaas</td>
			<td>Genotype: C58 RecA (RifR/CarbR) pTiBo542DT-DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin</td>
			<td>Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td>89151-400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2&#183;2H2O</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9224-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cefotaxime</td>
			<td>AK Scientific</td>
			<td>J90010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chlorella vulgaris</td>
			<td>University of Texas at Austin Culture Collection of Algae</td>
			<td>Strain: UTEX 395</td>
			<td>Wildtype strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CoCl2&#183;6H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C8661-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CuSO4&#183;5H2O</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>CX2185-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FeCl3&#183;6H2O</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9234-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gene Pulser Xcell Electroporator</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1652662</td>
			<td>Main unit equipped with PC module.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GeneJET Plant Genome Purification Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>K0791</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial acetic acid</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>CABDH3093-2.2P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>BioBasic</td>
			<td>GB0232</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES Buffer</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>H-3375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hygromycin B</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AAJ6068103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K2HPO4</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9266-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin</td>
			<td>Gold Biotechnologies</td>
			<td>K-250-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9268-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4&#183;7H2O</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97062-134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MnCl2&#183;4H2O</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>BAKR2540-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2CO3</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH7971-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2EDTA&#183;2H2O</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>8993-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2MoO4&#183;2H2O</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>BAKR3764-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH7257-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4 H2O</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>CA80058-650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaNO3&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH4574-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEBExpress Ni Resin</td>
			<td>NewEngland BioLabs</td>
			<td>NEB #S1427</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NH4Cl</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH9208-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pCAMBIA1302</td>
			<td>Leiden University</td>
			<td>Gift from Prof. Paul Hooykaas</td>
			<td>pBR322, KanR, pVS1, T-DNA(CaMV 35S/HygR/CaMV polyA, CaMV 35S promoter/mgpf5-6xhis/NOS terminator)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polypropylene Columns (5 mL)</td>
			<td>QIAGEN</td>
			<td>34964</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision Plus Protein Unstained Protein Standards, Strep-tagged recombinant, 1 mL</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610363</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rifampicin</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>R3501-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SunBlaster LED Strip Light 48 Inch&#160;</td>
			<td>SunBlaster</td>
			<td>210000000906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Synergy 4 Microplate UV/Vis spectrometer&#160;</td>
			<td>BioTEK</td>
			<td>S4MLFPTA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetracycline</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific Chemicals</td>
			<td>CAAAJ61714-14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TGX Stain-Free FastCast Acrylamide Kit, 12%</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610185</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thiamine</td>
			<td>TCI America</td>
			<td>T0181-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris Base</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP152-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptone</td>
			<td>BioBasic</td>
			<td>TG217(G211)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin)</td>
			<td>Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td>89151-436</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast Extract</td>
			<td>BioBasic</td>
			<td>G0961</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZnSO4&#183;7H2O</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>4382-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic engineering of green microalgae, chlorella vulgaris

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (AMT) serves as a widely employed tool for manipulating plant genomes. However, A. tumefaciens exhibit the capacity for gene transfer to a diverse array of species. Numerous microalgae species lack well-established methods for reliably integrating genes of interest into their nuclear genome. To harness the potential benefits of microalgal biotechnology, simple and efficient genome manipulation tools are crucial. Herein, an optimized AMT protocol is presented for the industrial microalgae species Chlorella vulgaris, utilizing the reporter green fluorescent protein (mGFP5) and the antibiotic resistance marker for Hygromycin B. Mutants are selected through plating on Tris-Acetate-Phosphate (TAP) media containing Hygromycin B and cefotaxime. Expression of mGFP5 is quantified via fluorescence after over ten generations of subculturing, indicating the stable transformation of the T-DNA cassette. This protocol allows for the reliable generation of multiple transgenic C. vulgaris colonies in under two weeks, employing the commercially available pCAMBIA1302 plant expression vector.

Author Spotlight: Optimized Transformation Protocol for Chlorella vulgaris Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens 

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Genetic Engineering of Green Microalgae, Chlorella vulgaris

The scope of the research focused on the development and optimization of a protocol for the transformation of chlorella vulgaris. We aimed to create a stable transgenic strains of chlorella vulgaris using agrobacterium tumefaciens and a specific plasmid, pCAMBIA1302, that allowed them to insert gene of interest and the potential for bio technological applications. Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, microscopy and imaging, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, bioinformatics, computational modeling, remote sensing and satellite imaging, nanotechnology, bioprocessing, and downstream processing.This study introduces an optimized agrobacterium tumefaciens media transformation protocol for the microalgae chlorella vulgaris using a specific plasmid and marker. It lays groundwork for enhancing microalgae by technology, overcoming previous limitations in reliable transformation tools for C.vulgaris.

To show successful transformation using the method above, C. vulgaris was cocultured with either AGL-1 containing the pCAMBIA1302 plasmid or without the plasmid (wild-type and plated on TAP agar supplemented with Hygromycin B and cefotaxime (Figure 1A). The leftmost plate shows the transformed colonies capable of growth on Hygromycin B/cefotaxime plates, and the middle plate shows that wild-type AGL-1 cannot grow on the Hygromycin B/cefotaxime plates. The rightmost plate shows that ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimized Transformation Protocol for Chlorella vulgaris Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens at JoVE.com

This protocol outlines the utilization of Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (AMT) for integrating gene(s) of interest into the nuclear genome of the green microalgae Chlorella vulgaris, leading to the production of stable transformants.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (AMT) serves as a widely employed tool for manipulating plant genomes. However, A. tumefaciens exhibit ...

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